Skip to contents Skip to Global Navigation Menu
  • KDCA
  • Contact us
  • E-Submission

PHRP : Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives

OPEN ACCESS. pISSN: 2210-9099. eISSN: 2233-6052
Search
Advanced Search

Articles

Page Path

Original Article

Impact of intimate partner violence during pregnancy on maternal mental health and child development: a birth cohort study in central Vietnam

Han Dai Tri Tran1orcid, Cuc Thi Vu1orcid, Hoang Thuy Linh Nguyen1orcid, Duc Nu Hong Vo1orcid, Bao-Yen Luong-Thanh1orcid, Thang Van Vo1,2orcid
Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives 2025;16(5):453-464.
Published online: September 26, 2025

1Faculty of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam

2Public Health and Preventive Medicine Association, Hue, Vietnam

Corresponding author: Thang Van Vo Faculty of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, 06 Ngo Quyen Street, Hue, Vietnam E-mail: vovanthang147@hueuni.edu.vn
• Received: May 16, 2025   • Revised: July 19, 2025   • Accepted: August 22, 2025

© 2025 Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

  • 2,075 Views
  • 90 Download
  • 1 Web of Science
  • 1 Crossref
  • 1 Scopus
prev next

Full Article

Download PDF Download PDF
  • Objectives
    This study measured the impact of prenatal intimate partner violence (p-IPV) on maternal mental health and suspected developmental delays (SDDs) in children at 6 months of age in central Vietnam.
  • Methods
    Data were drawn from a community-based birth cohort of 285 mother–child dyads in Hue, central Vietnam. The exposure factor was p-IPV, assessed using the revised conflict tactics scale (CTS2). Maternal mental health was measured with the patient health questionnaire-9. Child development at 6 months was screened using the Vietnamese version of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire, 3rd Edition (ASQ-3). Robust Poisson regression was used to estimate associations of p-IPV with maternal mental health and SDDs.
  • Results
    Among the women, 18.9% reported experiencing p-IPV. SDDs were identified in 13% of the children, with communication delays being the most prevalent (10.9%). The association between p-IPV and SDDs remained significant after adjustment for confounders in multilevel models, with the highest relative risk (RR) observed in the fully adjusted model (RR, 2.43; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.08–5.48). p-IPV exposure was significantly associated with postpartum depression in the crude and partially adjusted models, but this association became non-significant after full adjustment—most notably after accounting for prenatal depression, which remained a predictor of postpartum depression (RR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.06–1.25).
  • Conclusion
    p-IPV is significantly associated with increased risk of postpartum depression and developmental delays in early infancy. Integrating IPV screening and targeted interventions into prenatal care may contribute to improved developmental outcomes in children and better maternal health.
  • Keywords: Child development; Intimate partner violence; Longitudinal studies; Pregnancy
Background
Prenatal intimate partner violence (p-IPV) is defined as any physical, sexual, or psychological harm perpetrated by a current or former partner during pregnancy [1]. The impact of p-IPV on pregnancy outcomes is complex and far-reaching. It is associated with adverse birth outcomes, including low birth weight, preterm delivery, and neonatal intensive care unit admission [2]. These early-life adversities can have long-lasting effects on children’s health, cognitive development, and socio-emotional well-being [3–5]. Several studies have shown that exposure to p-IPV is linked to cognitive deficits, behavioral problems, and emotional difficulties in children, as well as increased risks of internalizing and externalizing problems in later childhood and adolescence [6–8]. A comprehensive review of IPV during pregnancy found that women who experience IPV may also be at risk of developmental delays in their offspring, including impairments in socializing, self-care abilities, and gross and fine motor skills [1]. Research in 11 low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) likewise found that p-IPV negatively impacts early child development [9]. This is consistent with findings from other prospective cohorts, including a 2025 study by Jiang et al. [10], which highlighted the detrimental effects of IPV during pregnancy on early child development. Furthermore, a 2025 systematic review by Tsunga et al. [11] synthesized evidence linking exposure to violence with adverse cognitive outcomes among children in LMICs.
Research on the impact of p-IPV on child development is critically important, as it clarifies how early exposure to violence can influence children’s neurodevelopment, cognition, and behavior. These complex biopsychosocial mechanisms must be understood to design effective, developmentally appropriate interventions. However, most existing studies in LMICs rely on cross-sectional designs or retrospective reporting, limiting the ability to establish causality and to track developmental trajectories over time [12].
In Vietnam, a recent analysis of 15 studies indicated that p-IPV is a significant issue, affecting approximately 32% of pregnant women [13]. Several Vietnamese studies have documented the detrimental effects of IPV on maternal and child health outcomes. A qualitative survey by Nhi et al. [14] in 2018 found that emotional violence, such as controlling behaviors, verbal humiliation, and isolation, was prevalent among women in northern Vietnam and significantly impacted their psychological well-being, contributing to anxiety, depression, and feelings of powerlessness. In a longitudinal study, Tho Nhi et al. [15] demonstrated that exposure to IPV during pregnancy, particularly emotional and physical violence, was strongly associated with an increased risk of postpartum depression, with a clear dose–response relationship. Similarly, Vo et al. [16] reported that IPV was significantly associated with adverse birth outcomes, including preterm birth and low birth weight, highlighting the urgent need for IPV screening and intervention during antenatal care to protect both maternal and infant health.
Another prospective cohort study of 1,276 pregnant women in Dong Anh district found that those exposed to physical violence had 5 times the risk of preterm birth and nearly 6 times the risk of low birth weight compared with those not exposed [17]. Across 42 demographic and health surveys in 29 resource-poor countries from 1998 to 2012, analyses also found a negative association between child wasting and IPV of all forms [18].
While existing Vietnamese studies have established important links between IPV and adverse birth outcomes or postpartum depression, a critical gap remains concerning the longitudinal impact of p-IPV on specific multidomain early child development outcomes. To our knowledge, no prospective birth cohort study in Vietnam has used a validated developmental screening tool such as the Ages and Stages Questionnaire, 3rd Edition (ASQ-3), to track the consequences of p-IPV from pregnancy through the first 6 months of life. Our study was designed to fill this evidence gap by providing robust, prospective data from central Vietnam.
Objectives
This study aims to measure the impact of p-IPV on birth outcomes, maternal mental health, and suspected developmental delays (SDDs) in children at 6 months of age in central Vietnam.
Study Design and Participants
From July 2023 to July 2024, a birth cohort study was conducted in Hue, Thua Thien-Hue province, central Vietnam. The target population comprised pregnant women in their third trimester who lived in the city at the time of recruitment. A stratified 2-stage cluster sampling method was employed. In the first stage, 8 wards/communes were randomly selected from the 36 in Hue, with equal representation from both sides of the Perfume River: 4 from the northern area and 4 from the southern area. In the second stage, all women in their third trimester within the selected wards/communes were identified from official pregnancy lists maintained by local commune health centers. According to the Thua Thien-Hue Provincial Population and Family Planning Division, these areas included approximately 1,334 pregnant women in 2023, of whom 446 were in their third trimester. A total population sampling approach was applied to this subgroup. Eligible participants were contacted by trained research staff in collaboration with local health workers, either in person or by phone.
Women were provided with information about the study’s objectives, procedures, and confidentiality protections. Those who expressed interest were formally invited to participate. At baseline, data were collected either at the commune health station or at the participant’s home, according to the woman’s preference and convenience. In both settings, interviews were conducted privately and confidentially to ensure participant safety and comfort, particularly when discussing sensitive topics such as IPV.
For follow-up, trained investigators visited participants at home at predetermined time points after delivery. These visits included structured interviews and developmental assessments of the child. All study procedures were carried out in accordance with ethical guidelines to ensure voluntary participation and data privacy. Women with known severe medical or psychiatric conditions, or those planning to relocate outside the study area within the following year, were excluded.
Measures

Maternal characteristics

Measures for pregnant women included demographic factors, socioeconomic status, prenatal health and reproductive history, adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), community and social support, and prenatal depression (phase 1). Participants also retrospectively reported experiences before age 18 across multiple domains.

ACEs

We used an adapted version of the ACE-International Questionnaire, incorporating 9 of 13 domains, and the pregnant women retrospectively reported adverse experiences before age 18 years [19]. The 9 domains included in this study were emotional abuse; physical abuse; contact sexual abuse; an alcohol and/or drug abuser in the household; an incarcerated household member; a household member who was chronically depressed, mentally ill, institutionalized, or suicidal; a household member treated violently; one or no parents, parental separation, or divorce; and physical neglect. ACEs were scored using a binary method. For each domain, if a participant reported experiencing an event at any frequency (i.e., once, a few times, or many times), a score of “1” was assigned (indicating the presence of an ACE). If the participant reported never experiencing that event, it was scored as “0.” The binary ACE score was then calculated by summing the scores across all 9 domains, yielding a total score ranging from 0 to 9 [20].

Community and social support

The multidimensional scale of perceived social support was used to evaluate community and social support [21]. The scale includes 12 items assessing support from family, friends, and a significant other. Each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 5 (very strongly agree). Higher scores reflect greater perceived social support.

Prenatal depression

The patient health questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) was used to assess the severity of depressive symptoms experienced over the past 2 weeks [22]. This tool evaluates the 9 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition criteria for depression, including anhedonia, dysphoria, sleep disturbances, fatigue, changes in appetite, low self-esteem, concentration difficulties, psychomotor retardation or agitation, and thoughts of suicide or homicide. Each item was rated on a 4-point Likert scale: 0, not at all; 1, several days; 2, more than half the days; or 3, nearly every day. The total score ranged from 0 to 27. A PHQ-9 score of 5 or higher was used as the cut-off for identifying possible depressive disorder, consistent with its widespread use in global mental health research [22,23].

Prior pregnancy risk

Prior pregnancy risk was defined as having experienced at least 1 of the following in a previous pregnancy: stillbirth, miscarriage, abortion, or preterm birth.

Neighborhood characteristics

We used an instrument developed by the Evidence for Better Lives Consortium to measure neighborhood characteristics in 8 LMICs, including Vietnam [24]. This 18-item questionnaire assesses aspects including neighborhood cohesion, intergenerational closure, neighborhood disorder, and social disorder. Each item is rated on a 4-point scale ranging from 1 (not a problem) to 4 (a large problem). A composite score was calculated, with higher scores indicating less favorable neighborhood conditions.
Exposure

p-IPV

The revised conflict tactics scale (CTS2) was employed to assess experiences of partner violence during pregnancy [25,26]. The CTS2 uses a 4-point Likert scale (0, never; 1, once; 2, 2–5 times; and 3, more than 5 times) that allows participants to report the frequency of exposure both over their lifetime and in the past 6 months. This widely used quantitative measure is a modification of the original conflict tactics scale (CTS, 1996) [25]. Although the CTS2 can be applied to various populations, including perpetrators, victims, and witnesses of domestic violence, our study focused on victims. We utilized 21 relevant items to evaluate 3 types of IPV: physical, psychological, and sexual violence. Participants with a total score ≥1 were considered to have experienced at least 1 form of p-IPV. The CTS2 was administered at the third-trimester baseline visit, and women were asked to report violent acts experienced during the current pregnancy. Pregnant women who experienced at least 1 type of IPV were considered IPV-exposed during the current pregnancy (phase 1).
Outcomes
The follow-up measures (phases 2–3) collected data on mothers’ mental health, birth outcomes, and child developmental outcomes, as follows.

Birth outcomes

Two key variables were extracted from health records: maternal delivery mode (cesarean section or vaginal birth) and infant birth weight.

Assessment of developmental performance in children

The ASQ-3 was used to screen and assess children’s developmental performance in communication, gross motor skills, fine motor skills, problem-solving, and personal–social skills between the ages of 1 month and 5½ years [27]. For the 6-month questionnaire, the sensitivity of the ASQ-3 has been reported as 75% and the specificity as 92% [28]. The ASQ-3 is versatile and available in multiple languages, making it suitable for various settings, including homes, clinics, preschools, and early intervention programs [29]. In Vietnam, the ASQ-3 was adapted by the Pediatric Rehabilitation Department to fit local conditions and was approved by the Ministry of Health [30]. The ASQ-3 comprises 20 questionnaires designed to assess developmental performance across the domains above. Each question has 2 response options: yes or no. Based on the responses, a final evaluation determines whether a child is suspected of having a developmental disorder. A child is considered at risk based on an answer of “no” to 2 of 3 skills in 5 areas, or “yes” to any one of the 5 additional abnormal signs [30].

Postpartum depression

The PHQ-9 was also used to assess postpartum depressive symptoms, using the same scoring approach as for prenatal depression [22]. The total score ranged from 0 to 27.
Data Collection
At baseline, data were collected through face-to-face interviews conducted in private rooms within community health centers (CHCs) to ensure privacy and confidentiality. During follow-up, health workers conducted interviews and children’s developmental assessments during home visits under the supervision of research team members. Eight CHC health workers were recruited as interviewers. Both data collectors and supervisors completed a 2-day training session covering interviewing techniques, the study’s purpose, the importance of privacy, the sensitivity of the topics, and the need for confidentiality and a respectful approach toward respondents.
Statistical Methods
Participant characteristics were summarized using frequencies and percentages for categorical variables, means with standard deviations for normally distributed continuous variables, and medians with interquartile ranges (Q1, Q3) for non-normally distributed continuous variables. Depending on distribution, group comparisons were performed using independent t-tests for normally distributed variables or Mann-Whitney U-tests for non-normally distributed variables. The association between p-IPV, maternal mental health, and SDDs was assessed using robust Poisson regression, which provides more accurate estimates of relative risk (RR), particularly when variance is underestimated by standard Poisson regression applied to binary outcomes [31,32]. Covariates were selected based on the prior literature, subject-matter expertise, and theoretical relevance as potential confounders [12,33,34]. All statistical tests were 2-sided, and results were considered statistically significant at a p-value of less than 0.05. Data were analyzed using IBM SPSS ver. 26.0 (IBM Corp.).
Ethics Approval
This study was approved by the Ethical Review Committee of University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University (No: H2023/146, dated May 22, 2023). Informed consent was confirmed by the institutional review board.
At baseline, 312 pregnant women aged 18 years or older were recruited. Participants were followed up at 1 and 6 months postpartum, with response rates of 98% and 91%, respectively. The primary reason for loss to follow-up was the inability to contact women who had moved to a new residence (Figure 1).
Table 1 provides a detailed comparison of participant characteristics stratified by p-IPV exposure among the sample of 285 individuals. Overall, 18.9% of participants experienced p-IPV, with psychological IPV the most prevalent (15.1%); physical and sexual IPV were reported in 2.5% and 8.1%, respectively. Maternal age was similar across groups, averaging approximately 29.6 years (p=0.667). Maternal employment status varied, with a higher proportion of government officials in the group without p-IPV exposure, but a higher proportion of freelancers among those exposed to p-IPV. Maternal education levels showed no significant association with p-IPV exposure (p=0.525), with higher education being the most common overall (40.7%). Pregnancy-related factors, including prior pregnancy risk and current pregnancy illness, were not significantly associated with p-IPV exposure. However, psychosocial factors such as ACE score (median score, 12.0 vs. 1.0; p<0.001) and prenatal depression (median score, 4.0 vs. 2.0; p<0.001) displayed notable differences between groups. Perceived social support (median score, 3.8 vs. 4.0; p<0.001), and neighborhood characteristics (mean score, 33.6 vs. 26.5; p<0.001) were significantly worse for the p-IPV group. Most mothers had no previous pregnancies (38.6%), or only one (36.8%). A large proportion reported no history of stillbirths or miscarriages, preterm births, and abortions (Table S1).
Table 2 presents the prevalence of SDDs across the 5 domains. Communication delays were the most prevalent, affecting 31 children (10.9%). In contrast, gross motor and fine motor delays were identified in only 1 child each (0.4%). Problem-solving delays were observed in 4 children (1.4%), while social–personal delays were noted in 2 children (0.7%). Overall, 37 children (13%) exhibited suspected delays in at least 1 domain, with communication being the most frequently affected area.
Table 3 presents a multilevel analysis examining the association between p-IPV exposure and SDDs in 6-month-old children. The analysis includes crude estimates and 3 adjusted models that incorporate maternal sociodemographic, pregnancy- and birth-related, psychosocial, and environmental factors. The crude analysis indicates that p-IPV exposure is significantly associated with SDDs. This association remained significant across all adjusted models, with model 3 displaying the highest RR (2.43; 95% CI, 1.08–5.48; p=0.033). In model 3, the absence of prior pregnancy risk demonstrated a protective effect (RR, 0.42; 95% CI, 0.19–0.91; p=0.028).
Regarding the prevalence of postpartum depression, among 285 participants, 55 women (19.3%) were identified as having at least minimal depressive symptoms, while 230 (80.7%) did not show signs of depression. Table 4 presents a multilevel analysis of the association between p-IPV and postpartum depression at 6 months, showing that p-IPV exposure was significantly associated with increased risk in the crude model (RR, 1.76; 95% CI, 1.06–2.90; p=0.028), model 1 (adjusted for maternal sociodemographic factors; RR, 1.70; 95% CI, 1.05–2.78; p=0.033), and model 2 (further adjusted for pregnancy- and birth-related factors; RR, 1.66; 95% CI, 1.01–2.74; p=0.047). However, this association became non-significant in model 3, which also adjusted for psychosocial and environmental factors. Notably, prenatal depression was a significant predictor of postpartum depression in the fully adjusted model (RR, 1.15; 95% CI, 1.06–1.25; p=0.001), while other factors such as maternal age, education, delivery mode, and social support did not show significant associations in the final model.
Key Findings
Our community-based longitudinal study identified significant associations of p-IPV with SDDs in children at 6 months of age and postpartum depression among mothers. Specifically, exposure to p-IPV was associated with a 2.5-fold increased risk of developmental delays. Using a prospective cohort design, our study builds on the existing literature, which in this region has often relied on cross-sectional data, thereby strengthening temporal evidence regarding the effects of p-IPV. These findings underscore the need for routine screening for IPV during antenatal care and the implementation of timely interventions to support maternal mental health, promote early child development, and ensure maternal well-being.
Our results align with prior research indicating that p-IPV negatively affects early childhood development. A cross-sectional analysis by Jeong et al. [9] found that children of mothers who experienced p-IPV had significantly lower developmental scores (β=−0.11; 95% CI, −0.15 to −0.07) in LMICs. Similarly, a systematic review by Toso et al. [35] concluded that nearly 75% of observational studies found a significant association between maternal exposure to violence and impaired neurodevelopment in children.
In Vietnam, research on the impact of IPV on child development is limited in the public health literature, especially longitudinal studies with a birth cohort design [17,18]. In a 2021 study, Do et al. [33] examined the impact of p-IPV on birth outcomes. The findings indicate that p-IPV is significantly associated with adverse neonatal outcomes, including low birth weight, preterm birth, and admission to neonatal intensive care.
p-IPV can negatively affect child development through both psychosocial and biological pathways. It disrupts maternal attachment and parenting behaviors, leading to insecure attachment and an increased risk of emotional and behavioral problems in children [36–42]. Biologically, p-IPV activates maternal stress responses, especially the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis, resulting in elevated cortisol levels that cross the placenta and interfere with fetal brain development [43–45]. These changes are associated with altered brain structures and disrupted neural connectivity, particularly in regions involved in emotional regulation and cognitive function [46]. Moreover, the developmental delays identified at 6 months may not be solely attributable to the prenatal environment. The presence of p-IPV is a strong predictor of postnatal IPV, meaning that the violent and stressful household environment may have continued after birth [47]. Furthermore, maternal stress and depression resulting from IPV can impair parenting capacity, potentially increasing the risk of direct child neglect or insensitive parenting during the first 6 months of life [48–50]. These postnatal factors could mediate the effects of prenatal exposure or act as independent contributors to the observed developmental delays.

Association between p-IPV and postpartum depression

Our findings highlight the complex interplay between violence exposure, mental health, and social factors in maternal health outcomes. First, the results indicate that p-IPV is associated with postpartum depression. This association appears geographically consistent across settings: studies from Vietnam, Bangladesh, and Latin America have reported that p-IPV approximately doubles the risk of postpartum depression [51–53]. Furthermore, a systematic review including 131,131 participants across 33 studies worldwide confirmed a strong and consistent association between p-IPV and increased risk of postpartum depression [54]. Second, our results indicate that while p-IPV was initially associated with postpartum depression, this relationship may operate through pathways involving pre-existing depression and other psychosocial factors. Our finding that the association between p-IPV and postpartum depression was attenuated to non-significance after adjusting for prenatal depression suggests a strong mediating pathway. It is plausible that p-IPV primarily exerts an indirect influence on postpartum mental health—that is, as a potent risk factor for the onset or exacerbation of depressive symptoms during pregnancy. This prenatal depression then serves as the more proximate and powerful predictor of continued depression in the postpartum period. This has important implications for intervention strategies, suggesting that addressing prenatal depression might be particularly important for preventing postpartum depression, especially in women with a history of IPV [55]. p-IPV, including emotional and physical violence, was associated with an increased risk of postpartum depression.
Strengths and Limitations
Our study represents the first longitudinal survey in Vietnam to examine the effect of p-IPV on child development at 6 months of age. The cohort design enables observation of temporal relationships between p-IPV and developmental outcomes, reducing potential recall and selection biases. This design strengthens the evidence base by providing a longitudinal perspective on early childhood development. Additionally, we utilized the ASQ-3, a validated tool for assessing early childhood development, administered by well-trained health staff to ensure accuracy and reliability. The Vietnamese version of the ASQ-3—translated by the Ministry of Health of Vietnam and authorized for use in screening for developmental delays—was employed in this study [56]. The ASQ-3 enables efficient large-scale screening while minimizing reporting bias through careful administration. Given the paucity of cohort studies in this area, our study fills a critical gap in the literature [12] and contributes valuable prospective data to understanding the long-term effects of p-IPV on child development. Furthermore, the association between p-IPV, maternal mental health, and SDDs was assessed using robust Poisson regression, which yields more accurate RR estimates compared with traditional logistic regression, increasing the validity of our findings [31,32].
However, this study has certain limitations. First, studies of this type may face under-reporting of IPV due to denial, fear of stigma, or embarrassment. Although we trained female interviewers and ensured privacy during data collection to encourage disclosure, social desirability bias may have led to underestimation of IPV prevalence. Second, the inability to assess whether IPV exposure was ongoing throughout the study limited our ability to evaluate its cumulative or changing effects on maternal and child health. Third, potential differences in outcomes by IPV type could not be explored due to sample size limitations. Fourth, this study did not collect data on several potentially influential variables, including the child’s sex, gestational age (weeks), low birth weight relative to gestational age, neonatal hospitalization, breastfeeding practices, and maternal substance use. Their omission may limit our ability to fully account for alternative explanations or to explore effect modification. Lastly, the study did not find a significant association between p-IPV and birth outcomes (delivery mode and birth weight; data not shown). This may be attributable to the limited sample size, which could have reduced the ability to detect differences reported in previous research.
Our findings contribute to the growing evidence that p-IPV has lasting adverse effects on early child development and maternal mental health. By employing a prospective birth cohort design, this research provides robust evidence on how early exposure to violence affects early childhood development and maternal health, informing public health strategies and policy efforts aimed at prevention and early intervention. Our findings support evidence-based programs and policies to reduce violence during pregnancy and to improve maternal-child health through comprehensive screening and interventions; such efforts could play a critical role in promoting optimal child development and maternal well-being. Future research should explore long-term developmental outcomes beyond infancy to provide a more complete picture of these impacts.
• This birth cohort study examined the impact of prenatal intimate partner violence (p-IPV) on birth outcomes, maternal mental health, and child development at 6 months in Vietnam. It addressed gaps in the literature with a prospective design, moving beyond common cross-sectional approaches.
• Among participants, 18.9% reported experiencing at least 1 form of p-IPV (psychological, physical, or sexual violence).
• p-IPV was associated with a 1.76-fold increased risk of postpartum depression and a 2.05-fold increased risk of suspected developmental delays in children at 6 months.
• Routine antenatal care must incorporate IPV and mental health screening to improve maternal and child health trajectories.
Supplementary data are available at https://doi.org/10.24171/j.phrp.2025.0178.
Supplementary Table S1.
Mother’s obstetric history at baseline (n=285)
j-phrp-2025-0178-Supplementary-Table-S1.pdf

Ethics Approval

This study was approved by the Ethical Review Committee of Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy (No: H2023/146, dated May 22, 2023). Informed consent was confirmed by the institutional review board.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Funding

The research was supported by funding from Hue University (DHH2023-04-206).

Availability of Data

The datasets are not publicly available; however, they can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Authors’ Contributions

Conceptualization: TVV, HDTT, CVT; Data curation: all authors; Formal analysis: TVV, HDTT, CVT; Investigation: HDTH, CTV, HTLN, DNHV, TVV; Methodology: TVV, HDTT, CVT; Project administration: TVV; Writing–original draft: TVV, HDTT, CVT, BYLT; Writing–review & editing: all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgements

The authors thank Nha NTT and the Faculty of Public Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, for their assistance with this research, and Duc NHC for his helpful comments on the use of the revised conflict tactics scale (CTS2) in early child development assessment. The authors also deeply thank Ms. Mo PT, Hue city health center and all mothers for data collection at the fieldsites.

Figure 1.
Diagram of the study.
Figure 1. Diagram of the study.  
Impact of intimate partner violence during pregnancy on maternal mental health and child development: a birth cohort study in central Vietnam
Table 1.
Participant characteristics of the total sample, stratified by p-IPV
Table 1.
Characteristic Category Total (n=285) p-IPV exposure (n=54) No p-IPV (n=231) p
p-IPV Overall p-IPV 54 (18.9)
Psychological p-IPV 43 (15.1)
Physical p-IPV 7 (2.5)
Sexual p-IPV 23 (8.1)
Maternal sociodemographic factors Maternal age (y) 29.6±5.3 29.9±5.1 29.5±5.4 0.667
Maternal employment status 0.093
 Business/trading 49 (17.2) 9 (16.7) 40 (17.3)
 Government official 60 (21.1) 11 (20.3) 49 (21.2)
 Freelance 99 (34.7) 21 (38.9) 78 (33.8)
 Not working 77 (27.0) 13 (24.1) 64 (27.7)
Maternal education 0.525
 Elementary school 25 (8.8) 2 (3.7) 23 (9.9)
 Middle school 66 (23.2) 14 (25.9) 52 (22.5)
 High school 78 (27.4) 15 (27.8) 63 (27.3)
 Higher education 116 (40.7) 23 (42.6) 93 (40.3)
Subjective social status 5.3±1.3 5.5±1.3 0.503
Paternal sociodemographic factors Paternal age (y) 32.5±5.9 33.1±5.4 33.3±6.0 0.298
Paternal education 0.595
 Elementary school 25 (8.8) 3 (5.6) 22 (9.5)
 Middle school 81 (28.4) 14 (25.9) 67 (29.0)
 High school 82 (28.8) 19 (35.2) 63 (27.3)
 Higher education 97 (34.0) 18 (33.3) 79 (34.2)
Paid work in the past 12 mo
 Yes 274 (96.1) 52 (96.3) 222 (96.1) 0.947
 No 11 (3.9) 2 (3.7) 9 (3.9)
Pregnancy and birth-related factors Prior pregnancy risk 0.509
 No 261 (91.6) 50 (92.6) 211 (91.3)
 Yes 24 (8.4) 4 (7.4) 20 (8.7)
Current pregnancy illness 0.558
 No 235 (82.50) 46 (85.2) 189 (81.8)
 Yes 50 (17.50) 8 (14.8) 42 (18.2)
Delivery mode 0.429
 Vaginal delivery 151 (53.0) 26 (48.1) 125 (54.1)
 Cesarean delivery 134 (47.0) 28 (51.9) 106 (45.9)
Birth weight (g) 3.200 (3.000, 3.400) 3.200 (2.975, 3.400) 3.200 (3.000, 3.400) 0.678a)
Psychosocial and environmental factors Adverse childhood experiencesb) 1.0 (0.0, 2.0) 2.0 (1.0, 2.0) 1.0 (0.0, 1.0) <0.001a)
Prenatal depression 2.0 (0.0, 4.0) 4.0 (2.0, 5.0) 2.0 (0.0, 3.0) <0.001a)
Perceived social supportc) 4.0 (3.8, 4.4) 3.8 (3.6, 4.0) 4.0 (3.8, 4.4) <0.001a)
Neighborhood characteristicsd) 26.0 (20.0, 32.0) 32.0 (25.0, 42.0) 25.0 (19.0, 29.0) <0.001a)

Data are presented as n (%), mean±standard deviation, or median (Q1, Q3).

p-IPV, prenatal intimate partner violence.

a)Mann-Whitney U-test.

b)Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) were measured with an adapted version of the ACE-International Questionnaire, which ranged from 0–9; one point was assigned for each experience reported, regardless of frequency.

c)Perceived social support was measured with the multidimensional scale of perceived social support, which ranged from 1–7; higher scores reflect greater perceived social support.

d)Neighborhood characteristics were measured with the 18-item Evidence for Better Lives Consortium questionnaire, which ranged from 18–72; higher scores indicate less favorable neighborhood conditions.

Table 2.
Prevalence of SDDs by ASQ-3 domain
Table 2.
ASQ-3 domain No. of children with SDDs Prevalence (%)
Communication 31 10.9
Gross motor 1 0.4
Fine motor 1 0.4
Problem solving 4 1.4
Social–personal 2 0.7
At least 1 domain 37 13.0

SDD, suspected developmental delay; ASQ-3, Ages and Stages Questionnaire, 3rd Edition.

Table 3.
Multilevel analysis of the association between p-IPV and suspected developmental delays in children at 6 months
Table 3.
Characteristic Category Crude Model 1a) Model 2b) Model 3c)
RR (95% CI) p RR (95% CI) p RR (95% CI) p RR (95% CI) p
p-IPV p-IPV exposure 2.05 (1.10–3.82) 0.023d) 2.42 (1.28–4.57) 0.006d) 2.36 (1.26–4.43) 0.007d) 2.43 (1.08–5.48) 0.033d)
No p-IPV 1 1 1
Maternal sociodemographic factors Maternal age 0.97 (0.91–1.04) 0.385 0.93 (0.85–1.02) 0.113 0.92 (0.83–1.02) 0.101
Maternal employment status
 Business/trading 0.54 (0.20–1.45) 0.221 0.65 (0.22–1.86) 0.419 0.64 (0.22–1.8) 0.394
 Government official 0.52 (0.19–1.40) 0.195 0.68 (0.23–1.96) 0.472 0.74 (0.25–2.22) 0.592
 Freelance 0.76 (0.37–1.16) 0.457 0.84 (0.38–1.84) 0.665 0.87 (0.39–1.93) 0.728
 Not working 1 1 1
Maternal education
 Elementary school 2.51 (1.14–5.50) 0.022d) 2.27 (0.84–6.11) 0.106 2.4 (0.88–6.53) 0.086
 Middle school 0.85 (0.34–2.10) 0.717 0.75 (0.29–1.97) 0.561 0.77 (0.29–2.01) 0.588
 High school 0.61 (0.25–1.50) 0.281 0.55 (0.19–1.65) 0.290 0.57 (0.18–1.75) 0.323
 Higher education 1 1 1
Subjective social status 1.25 (1.00–1.57) 0.553 1.06 (0.82–1.38) 0.646 1.07 (0.82–1.4) 0.613
Paternal sociodemographic factors Paternal age 1.03 (0.95–1.13) 0.424 1.04 (0.95–1.14) 0.377
Paternal education
 Elementary school 0.25 (0.03–1.87) 0.176 0.23 (0.04–1.45) 0.117
 Middle school 1.34 (0.48–3.72) 0.570 1.31 (0.47–3.66) 0.608
 High school 1.42 (0.53–3.80) 0.486 1.38 (0.51–3.74) 0.527
 Higher education 1
Paid work in the past 12 mo
 Yes 1.5 (0.28–8.12) 0.641 1.52 (0.27–8.42) 0.633
 No 1 1
Pregnancy and birth-related factors Prior pregnancy risk
 No 0.41 (0.19–0.9) 0.026d) 0.42 (0.19–0.91) 0.028d)
 Yes 1 1
Current pregnancy illness
 No 0.65 (0.3–1.39) 0.269 0.58 (0.27–1.24) 0.160
 Yes 1 1
Delivery mode
 Vaginal delivery 1.06 (0.56–2.00) 0.855 1.11 (0.57–2.16) 0.757
 Cesarean delivery 1 1
Birth weight 1.84 (0.65–5.23) 0.250 2.11 (0.7–6.35) 0.184
Psychosocial and environmental factors Adverse childhood experiences 1.02 (0.74–1.42) 0.885
Prenatal depression 0.99 (0.91–1.07) 0.809
Perceived social support 0.76 (0.58–0.98) 0.037d)
Neighborhood characteristics 0.99 (0.96–1.02) 0.470

p-IPV, prenatal intimate partner violence; RR, relative risk; CI, confidence interval.

a)Crude+maternal sociodemographic factors (age, employment status, education, and subjective social status).

b)Model 1+paternal sociodemographic factors+pregnancy and birth-related factors (prior pregnancy risk, current pregnancy illness, delivery mode, birth weight).

c)Model 2+psychosocial and environmental factors (adverse childhood experiences, antenatal depression, perceived social support, neighborhood characteristics).

d)Statistical significance.

Table 4.
Multilevel analysis of the association between p-IPV and postpartum depression at 6 months
Table 4.
Characteristic Category Crude Model 1a) Model 2b) Model 3c)
RR (95% CI) p RR (95% CI) p RR (95% CI) p RR (95% CI) p
p-IPV p-IPV exposure 1.76 (1.06–2.90) 0.028d) 1.70 (1.05–2.78) 0.033d) 1.66 (1.01–2.74) 0.047d) 1.17 (0.63–2.19) 0.619
No p-IPV 1 1 1 1
Maternal sociodemographic factors Maternal age 0.98 (0.94–1.03) 0.982 1.04 (0.97–1.11) 0.311 1.03 (0.96–1.11) 0.380
Maternal employment status
 Business/trading 0.87 (0.36–2.11) 0.765 0.94 (0.4–2.18) 0.877 1.04 (0.45–2.38) 0.928
 Government official 1.54 (0.62–3.86) 0.353 1.43 (0.59–3.48) 0.434 1.56 (0.6–4.05) 0.357
 Freelance 1.75 (0.98–3.14) 0.060 1.78 (1.01–3.16) 0.047d) 1.93 (1.04–3.6) 0.038d)
 Not working 1 1 1
Maternal education
 Elementary school 1.05 (0.35–3.20) 0.930 1.36 (0.5–3.71) 0.553 1.49 (0.58–3.83) 0.403
 Middle school 1.57 (0.75–3.29) 0.230 1.86 (0.85–4.08) 0.119 2.43 (1.04–5.7) 0.041
 High school 1.24 (0.62–2.48) 0.539 1.25 (0.6–2.6) 0.547 1.61 (0.73–3.55) 0.235
 Higher education 1 1 1
Subjective social status 1.00 (0.82–1.23) 0.990 1.01 (0.82–1.25) 0.932 1.04 (0.84–1.29) 0.728
Paternal sociodemographic factors Paternal age 0.94 (0.88–1) 0.067 0.95 (0.89–1.02) 0.130
Paternal education
 Elementary school 0.84 (0.3–2.32) 0.733 0.75 (0.27–2.06) 0.570
 Middle school 0.74 (0.33–1.65) 0.460 0.62 (0.26–1.47) 0.278
 High school 0.9 (0.44–1.84) 0.764 0.88 (0.43–1.82) 0.740
 Higher education 1 1
Paid work in the past 12 mo
 Yes 2.8 (0.39–20.21) 0.308 2.23 (0.38–13.26) 0.376
 No 1 1
Pregnancy and birth-related factors Prior pregnancy risk 2.12 (0.54–8.31) 0.281 2.77 (0.82–9.3) 0.100
 No 1 1
 Yes
Current pregnancy illness
 No 1.7 (0.71–4.07) 0.235 1.79 (0.77–4.18) 0.178
 Yes 1 1
Delivery mode
 Vaginal delivery 1.04 (0.64–1.69) 0.880 1.06 (0.65–1.73) 0.811
 Cesarean delivery 1 1
Birth weight 0.91 (0.42–1.98) 0.814 0.78 (0.37–1.65) 0.507
Psychosocial and environmental factors Adverse childhood experiences 0.89 (0.71–1.12) 0.321
Prenatal depression 1.15 (1.06–1.25) 0.001d)
Perceived social support 1.02 (0.71–1.47) 0.925
Neighborhood characteristics 1.01 (0.98–1.03) 0.575

p-IPV, prenatal intimate partner violence; RR, relative risk; CI, confidence interval.

a)Crude+maternal sociodemographic factors (age, employment status, education, subjective social status).

b)Model 1+paternal sociodemographic factors+pregnancy and birth-related factors (prior pregnancy risk, current pregnancy illness, delivery mode, birth weight).

c)Model 2+psychosocial and environmental factors (adverse childhood experiences, antenatal depression, perceived social support, neighborhood characteristics).

d)Statistical significance.

  • 1. Agarwal S, Prasad R, Mantri S, et al. A comprehensive review of intimate partner violence during pregnancy and its adverse effects on maternal and fetal health. Cureus 2023;15:e39262.
  • 2. Steele-Baser M, Brown AL, D'Angelo DV, et al. Intimate partner violence and pregnancy and infant health outcomes: pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system, nine U.S. jurisdictions, 2016-2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2024;73:1093−8.
  • 3. Laelago T, Belachew T, Tamrat M. Effect of intimate partner violence on birth outcomes. Afr Health Sci 2017;17:681−9.
  • 4. Belay HG, Debebe GA, Ayele AD, et al. Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2022;17:e0275836.
  • 5. Chen PH, Rovi S, Vega ML, et al. Birth outcomes in relation to intimate partner violence. J Natl Med Assoc 2017;109:238−45.
  • 6. Kim JY, Zhang L, Gruber AM, et al. Prenatal exposure to intimate partner violence and child developmental outcomes: a scoping review study. Trauma Violence Abuse 2024;25:2249−63.
  • 7. Udo IE, Sharps P, Bronner Y, et al. Maternal intimate partner violence: relationships with language and neurological development of infants and toddlers. Matern Child Health J 2016;20:1424−31.
  • 8. Silva EP, Lemos A, Andrade CH, et al. Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and behavioral problems in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr (Rio J) 2018;94:471−82.
  • 9. Jeong J, Adhia A, Bhatia A, et al. Intimate partner violence, maternal and paternal parenting, and early child development. Pediatrics 2020;145:e20192955.
  • 10. Jiang N, Ma SS, Zu P, et al. Intimate partner violence during pregnancy and early offspring development: a prospective birth cohort study. Biol Psychiatry 2025;S0006-3223(25). 01108−4.
  • 11. Tsunga LP, Hiscox LV, Halligan SL, et al. Violence exposure and cognitive outcomes among children in Low- and Middle-Income Countries (LMICs): a systematic review. Trauma Violence Abuse 2025;15248380251316232.
  • 12. Bogat GA, Levendosky AA, Cochran K. Developmental consequences of intimate partner violence on children. Annu Rev Clin Psychol 2023;19:303−29.
  • 13. Do HP, Tran BX, Nguyen CT, et al. Inter-partner violence during pregnancy, maternal mental health and birth outcomes in Vietnam: a systematic review. Child Youth Serv Rev 2019;96:255−65.
  • 14. Nhi TT, Hanh NT, Gammeltoft TM. Emotional violence and maternal mental health: a qualitative study among women in northern Vietnam. BMC Womens Health 2018;18:58.
  • 15. Tho Nhi T, Hanh NT, Hinh ND, et al. Intimate partner violence among pregnant women and postpartum depression in Vietnam: a longitudinal study. Biomed Res Int 2019;2019:4717485.
  • 16. Vo TM, Tran VT, Cuu TN, et al. Domestic violence and its association with pre-term or low birthweight delivery in Vietnam. Int J Womens Health 2019;11:501−10.
  • 17. Hoang TN, Van TN, Gammeltoft T, et al. Association between intimate partner violence during pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcomes in Vietnam: a prospective cohort study. PLoS One 2016;11:e0162844.
  • 18. Chai J, Fink G, Kaaya S, et al. Association between intimate partner violence and poor child growth: results from 42 demographic and health surveys. Bull World Health Organ 2016;94:331−9.
  • 19. World Health Organization (WHO) (CH). Adverse childhood experiences international questionnaire (ACE-IQ). WHO; 2019.
  • 20. World Health Organization (WHO) (CH). Adverse Childhood Experiences International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ) [Internet]. WHO; 2020 [cited 2025 Apr 17]. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/adverse-childhood-experiences-international-questionnaire-(ace-iq).
  • 21. Zimet G, Dahlem N, Zimet S, et al. The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. J Pers Assess 1988;52:30−41.
  • 22. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med 2001;16:606−13.
  • 23. Levis B, Bhandari PM, Neupane D, et al. Data-driven cutoff selection for the patient health questionnaire-9 depression screening tool. JAMA Netw Open 2024;7:e2429630.
  • 24. Campo-Tena L, Roman GD, Murray AL, et al. Assessing neighborhood characteristics and their association with prenatal maternal stress, depressive symptoms, and well-being in eight culturally diverse cities: a cross-sectional study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2025;22:456.
  • 25. Straus MA, Hamby SL, Boney-McCoy S, et al. The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. J Fam Issues 1996;17:283−316.
  • 26. Chapman H, Gillespie SM. The Revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): a review of the properties, reliability, and validity of the CTS2 as a measure of partner abuse in community and clinical samples. Aggress Violent Behav 2019;44:27−35.
  • 27. Squires J, Bricker D. Ages & Stages Questionnaires®, Third Edition (ASQ-3™): a parent-completed child-monitoring system. Brookes Publishing Co.; 2009.
  • 28. ASQ-3™ User's Guide. Concurrent validity for ASQ-3 questionnaire intervals [Internet]. Brookes Publishing; 2009 [cited 2025 May 9]. Available from: https://agesandstages.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/asq3_concurrent_validity.pdf.
  • 29. Singh A, Yeh CJ, Boone Blanchard S. Ages and stages questionnaire: a global screening scale. Bol Med Hosp Infant Mex 2017;74:5−12.
  • 30. Vietnam Ministry of Health (VN). Decision No. 2254/QĐ-BYT dated May 7, 2021, on the issuance of a toolkit for the early detection of autism spectrum disorder in children. Vietnam Ministry of Health; 2021. Vietnamese.
  • 31. Chen W, Qian L, Shi J, et al. Comparing performance between log-binomial and robust Poisson regression models for estimating risk ratios under model misspecification. BMC Med Res Methodol 2018;18:63.
  • 32. Zou G. A modified poisson regression approach to prospective studies with binary data. Am J Epidemiol 2004;159:702−6.
  • 33. Do HP, Baker PR, Van Vo T, et al. Intergenerational effects of violence on women’s perinatal wellbeing and infant health outcomes: evidence from a birth cohort study in Central Vietnam. BMC Pregnancy Childbirth 2021;21:648.
  • 34. Racine N, Plamondon A, Madigan S, et al. Maternal adverse childhood experiences and infant development. Pediatrics 2018;141:e20172495.
  • 35. Toso K, de Cock P, Leavey G. Maternal exposure to violence and offspring neurodevelopment: a systematic review. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2020;34:190−203.
  • 36. Kobayashi JE, Bernard NK, Nuttall AK, et al. Intimate partner violence and positive parenting across early childhood: comparing self-reported and observed parenting behavior. J Fam Psychol 2021;35:745−55.
  • 37. Levendosky AA, Bogat GA, Huth-Bocks AC. The influence of domestic violence on the development of the attachment relationship between mother and young child. Psychoanal Psychol 2011;28:512−27.
  • 38. Christie H, Hamilton-Giachritsis C, Alves-Costa F, et al. The impact of parental posttraumatic stress disorder on parenting: a systematic review. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2019;10:1550345.
  • 39. Dayton CJ, Levendosky AA, Davidson WS, et al. The child as held in the mind of the mother: the influence of prenatal maternal representations on parenting behaviors. Infant Ment Health J 2010;31:220−41.
  • 40. Galbally M, Watson SJ, van IJzendoorn MH, et al. Maternal trauma but not perinatal depression predicts infant-parent attachment. Arch Womens Ment Health 2022;25:215−25.
  • 41. Symes L, McFarlane J, Maddoux J, et al. Evaluating an intergenerational model to explain the path from violence against mothers to child behavior and academic outcomes. Violence Against Women 2020;26:730−49.
  • 42. Zvara BJ, Mills-Koonce R. Intimate partner violence, parenting, and children’s representations of caregivers. J Interpers Violence 2021;36:NP11756−79.
  • 43. Liu MY, Wei LL, Zhu XH, et al. Prenatal stress modulates HPA axis homeostasis of offspring through dentate TERT independently of glucocorticoids receptor. Mol Psychiatry 2023;28:1383−95.
  • 44. Ruffaner-Hanson C, Noor S, Sun MS, et al. The maternal-placental-fetal interface: adaptations of the HPA axis and immune mediators following maternal stress and prenatal alcohol exposure. Exp Neurol 2022;355:114121.
  • 45. Wu Y, De Asis-Cruz J, Limperopoulos C. Brain structural and functional outcomes in the offspring of women experiencing psychological distress during pregnancy. Mol Psychiatry 2024;29:2223−40.
  • 46. Thomason ME, Hect JL, Waller R, et al. Interactive relations between maternal prenatal stress, fetal brain connectivity, and gestational age at delivery. Neuropsychopharmacology 2021;46:1839−47.
  • 47. Kita S, Chan KL, Tobe H, et al. A follow-up study on the continuity and spillover effects of intimate partner violence during pregnancy on postnatal child abuse. J Interpers Violence 2021;36:NP6904−27.
  • 48. Buffarini R, Coll CV, Moffitt T, et al. Intimate partner violence against women and child maltreatment in a Brazilian birth cohort study: co-occurrence and shared risk factors. BMJ Glob Health 2021;6:e004306.
  • 49. Kita S, Tobe H, Umeshita K, et al. Impact of intimate partner violence and childhood maltreatment on maternal-infant maltreatment: a longitudinal study. Jpn J Nurs Sci 2021;18:e12373.
  • 50. Zhang Y, Shen F. Longitudinal exploration of prenatal and postnatal intimate partner violence, postpartum depression, and child-mother attachment: a mediation model. Violence Against Women 2025;31:2146−67.
  • 51. Valentine JM, Rodriguez MA, Lapeyrouse LM, et al. Recent intimate partner violence as a prenatal predictor of maternal depression in the first year postpartum among Latinas. Arch Womens Ment Health 2011;14:135−43.
  • 52. Dang TAT, Vo TV, Dunne MP, et al. Effect of intimate partner violence during pregnancy on maternal mental health: a cohort study in central Vietnam. Women Health 2022;62:205−13.
  • 53. Islam MJ, Broidy L, Baird K, et al. Intimate partner violence around the time of pregnancy and postpartum depression: the experience of women of Bangladesh. PLoS One 2017;12:e0176211.
  • 54. Ankerstjerne LBS, Laizer SN, Andreasen K, et al. Landscaping the evidence of intimate partner violence and postpartum depression: a systematic review. BMJ Open 2022;12:e051426.
  • 55. Luciano M, Di Vincenzo M, Brandi C, et al. Does antenatal depression predict post-partum depression and obstetric complications?: results from a longitudinal, long-term, real-world study. Front Psychiatry 2022;13:1082762.
  • 56. Vietnam Ministry of Health (VN). The approval for the Vietnamese version of the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ-3) for screening developmental delays in children. Vietnam Ministry of Health; 2021. Vietnamese.

Download Citation

Download a citation file in RIS format that can be imported by all major citation management software, including EndNote, ProCite, RefWorks, and Reference Manager.

Format:

Include:

Impact of intimate partner violence during pregnancy on maternal mental health and child development: a birth cohort study in central Vietnam
Osong Public Health Res Perspect. 2025;16(5):453-464.   Published online September 26, 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.24171/j.phrp.2025.0178
Download Citation

Download a citation file in RIS format that can be imported by all major citation management software, including EndNote, ProCite, RefWorks, and Reference Manager.
Format:
Include:
Impact of intimate partner violence during pregnancy on maternal mental health and child development: a birth cohort study in central Vietnam
Osong Public Health Res Perspect. 2025;16(5):453-464.   Published online September 26, 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.24171/j.phrp.2025.0178
Close

Figure

PHRP : Osong Public Health and Research Perspectives

About

Browse articles 

Editorial policies

For authors  

phrp 사이트 QRCODE(URL : https://ophrp.org)
© Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency.