1Pharmacy Department, Jiangsu Vocational College of Medicine, Yancheng, China
2Doctor of Philosophy in Biomedicine, School of Graduate Studies, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia
3Department of Diagnostic and Allied Health Science, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Management and Science University, Shah Alam, Malaysia
© 2022 Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Ethics Approval
Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.
Funding
None.
Availability of Data
All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article. Other data may be requested through the corresponding author.
Additional Contributions
Management and Science University (Selangor, Malaysia) provided statistical support.
Based on [37].
Pediatric regimens are for children aged ≥1 month to ≤17 years.
CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; IV, intravenous; PO, by mouth; IM, intramuscular.
Antibiotic | Dose |
Duration (d) | Route of administration | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Adult | Child | |||
Ciprofloxacin | 400 mg/8 h | 10 mg/kg per 8 or 12 h (maximum 400 mg/dose) | 7–10 | IV |
750 mg/12 h | 15 mg/kg per 8 or 12 h (maximum 500 mg/dose per 8 h or 750 mg/dose per 12 h) | PO | ||
Levofloxacin | 750 mg/24 h | Weight <50 kg: 8 mg/kg per 12 h (maximum 250 mg/dose) | 7–10 | IV or PO |
Weight ≥50 kg: 500–750 mg per 24 h | ||||
Moxifloxacin | 400 mg/24 h | Alternative option | 7–10 | IV or PO |
Doxycycline | 200 mg loading does, then 100 mg/12 h | Weight <45 kg: 4.4 mg/kg loading dose, then 2.2 mg/kg every 12 h (maximum 100 mg/dose) | 7–10 | IV or PO |
(for bubonic and pharyngeal plague) | Weight ≥45 kg: same as adult dose | |||
Gentamicin | 5 mg/kg every 24 h | 4.5–7.5 mg/kg every 24 h | 7 | IV or IM |
Streptomycin | 1 g/12 h | 15 mg/kg every 12 h (maximum 1 g/dose) | 7 | IV or IM |
Type of strains | Location of isolation | Year | Host of isolation | Resistance phenotype | Mechanism |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
12/87 | Andapa in Madagascar | 1987 | Human | Streptomycin | rpsl gene mutation |
17/95 (IP275) | Ambalavao in Madagascar | 1995 | Human | Multiple drug resistance | Plasmid IP1202 |
16/95 | Ampitana in Madagascar | 1995 | Human | Streptomycin | Plasmid IP1203 |
S19960127 | Tibet in China | 1996 | Human | Streptomycin | rpsl gene mutation |
IP2180H | Antananarivo in Madagascar | 1998 | Rat | Doxycycline | Plasmid pIP2180H |
56/13, 59/13 | Faratsiho in Madagascar | 2013 | Humans | Streptomycin | rpsl gene mutation |
Year of detection | Location/year of isolation | No. of isolates | Purpose | Method | Results |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2006 | China/1943–2005 | 271 | Detect anti-streptomycin Y. pestis | PCR (strA-strB genes) | No targeted genes were detected |
2010 | North America/1943–2002 | 713 | Detect MDR Y. pestis | PCR (IncA/C plasmid backbone) | No targeted genes were detected |
2011 | North and South America, Asia, Africa/1940–2007 | 392 | Detect resistance against gentamicin, streptomycin, tetracycline, doxycycline, ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin, chloramphenicol and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole | Suspensibility test based on CLSI guidelines | Highly susceptible to tested antibiotics |
2018 | Qinghai province in China/1950–2016 | 282 | Detect anti-streptomycin, anti-β-lactam, and anti-sulfonamide Y. pestis | PCR (strAB genes, tem/shv/ctx-m genes, sul1/sul2/sul3 genes were targeted) & Kirby-Bauer disc agar diffusion method test based on NCCLS guidelines | No targeted genes. |
All strains sensitive to tested antibiotics |
Resistance phenotype | Mechanism | Resistance gene |
---|---|---|
β-lactams | ||
Ampicillin | A TEM-1 penicillinase | blaTEM-1 |
Tetracycline | efflux | tetRAclassD |
Phenicols | ||
Chloramphenicol | Type I chloramphenicol acetyltransferase | catI |
Sulfonamides | Dihydropteroate synthase | sul1, sul2 |
Aminoglycosides | Type I 3'-aminoglycoside phosphotransferase | aphA, aadA, strAB |
Kanamycin | ||
Streptomycin spectinomycin | 3’’-9-aminoglycoside adenylyl transferase |
Strain | Name of the genome | Accession | Size (Mb) | GC% | Protein | Start | Stop | Locus | Locus tag | Protein product | Length | Protein name |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
17/95 (IP275) | Plasmid pIP1202 | CP000603.1 | 0.18 | 52.9 | 212 | 32222 | 33037 | aphA | YpIP275_pIP1202_0052 | ABO42185.1 | 271 | Aminoglycoside 3\'-phosphotransferase (plasmid) |
34715 | 35518 | strA | YpIP275_pIP1202_0055 | ABO42054.1 | 267 | Streptomycin resistance protein A (plasmid) | ||||||
35518 | 36354 | strB | YpIP275_pIP1202_0056 | ABO42239.1 | 278 | Streptomycin resistance protein B (plasmid) | ||||||
40824 | 41483 | cat | YpIP275_pIP1202_0063 | ABO42042.1 | 219 | Chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (plasmid) | ||||||
48941 | 49756 | sul2 | YpIP275_pIP1202_0073 | ABO42075.1 | 271 | Dihydropteroate synthase (plasmid) | ||||||
141580 | 142440 | blaTEM-1 | YpIP275_pIP1202_0175 | ABO42128.1 | 286 | Beta-lactamase (plasmid) | ||||||
147544 | 148728 | tetA | YpIP275_pIP1202_0182 | ABO42139.1 | 394 | Tetracycline resistance protein TetA, class D (plasmid) | ||||||
148824 | 149480 | tetR | YpIP275_pIP1202_0183 | ABO42071.1 | 218 | Tetracycline repressor protein TetR, class D (plasmid) | ||||||
152529 | 153368 | sul1 | YpIP275_pIP1202_0188 | ABO42234.1 | 279 | Dihydropteroate synthase (plasmid) | ||||||
153873 | 154883 | aadA | YpIP275_pIP1202_0190 | ABO42050.1 | 336 | Aminoglycoside adenylyltransferase (plasmid) | ||||||
S19960127 | Chromosome | NZ_CP045640.1 | 4.55 | 47.5 | 3849 | 4461357 | 4461731 | rpsL | S96127_RS21075 | WP_200911418.1 | 124 | 30S ribosomal protein S12 |
16/95 | Plasmid pIP1203 | HG326189 | 0.047 | 64.5 | 50 | 612 | 1415 | strA | - | SPF31211.1 | 267 | Aminoglycoside 3'-phosphotransferase |
1646 | 2251 | strB | - | SPF31212.1 | 201 | Aminoglycoside 3'-phosphotransferase | ||||||
IP2180H | Plasmid pIP2180H | ERS1681497 | 0.17 | 45.4 | 203 | 82627 | 83250 | tetR(B) | P2180_RS00535 | WP_000088605.1 | 207 | Tetracycline resistance transcriptional repressor |
83332 | 84537 | tet(B) | P2180_RS00540 | WP_001089068.1 | 401 | Tetracycline efflux MFS transporter | ||||||
84650 | 85244 | tetC | P2180_RS00545 | WP_000428546.1 | 197 | Tetracycline resistance-associated transcriptional repressor |
Based on [ Pediatric regimens are for children aged ≥1 month to ≤17 years. CDC, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; IV, intravenous; PO, by mouth; IM, intramuscular.
Based on [ PCR, polymerase chain reaction; MDR, multidrug resistance; CLSI, Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; NCCLS, National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards.
Based on [
AMR, antimicrobial resistance; MFS, major facilitator superfamily.