1Department of Food and Nutrition, Kunsan National University, Gunsan, Korea
2College of Education and Health Sciences, Touro University, Vallejo, CA, USA
3Department of Pediatrics,University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
4Department of Human Performance and Sport Sciences, Tennessee State University, Nashville, TN, USA
5Department of Kinesiology, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Princess Anne, MD, USA
6Division of Public Health Sciences, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
7Department of Human Development and Family Science, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
© 2021 Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Ethics Approval
The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Tennessee State University (IRB No: HS2015-3675) and University of Maryland Eastern Shore (IRB No: #2016-016). All participants provided written consent for their personal data to be used.
Conflicts of Interest
The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.
Funding
None.
Availability of Data
All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.
Variable | Total (n=219) | Male (n=120) | Female (n=99) | Effect sizea) | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Annual household income | 0.187 | 0.054 | |||
Don’t know | 44 (20.1) | 31 (25.8) | 13 (13.1) | ||
<$30,000 | 32 (14.6) | 13 (10.8) | 19 (19.2) | ||
≥$30,000 & <$60,000 | 60 (27.4) | 34 (28.3) | 26 (26.3) | ||
≥$60,000 | 83 (37.9) | 42 (35.0) | 41 (41.4) | ||
Poverty threshold (n=205) | 0.082 | 0.239 | |||
Above | 177 (86.3) | 97 (89.0) | 80 (83.3) | ||
Below | 28 (13.7) | 12 (11.0) | 16 (16.7) | ||
Type of residence | 0.047 | 0.490 | |||
On-campus | 162 (74.0) | 91 (75.8) | 71 (71.7) | ||
Off-campus | 57 (26.0) | 29 (24.2) | 28 (28.3) | ||
Campus setting | 0.112 | 0.099 | |||
Very large city | 77 (35.2) | 48 (40.0) | 29 (29.3) | ||
Rural town | 142 (64.8) | 72 (60.0) | 70 (70.7) | ||
Weight status | 0.138 | 0.239 | |||
Underweight | 5 (2.3) | 2 (1.7) | 3 (3.0) | ||
Normal | 81 (37.0) | 39 (32.5) | 42 (42.4) | ||
Overweight | 74 (33.8) | 47 (39.2) | 27 (27.3) | ||
Obese | 59 (26.9) | 32 (26.7) | 27 (27.3) | ||
Informed of being overweight by a doctor | 0.072 | 0.345 | |||
Yes | 55 (24.9) | 26 (22.0) | 28 (28.3) | ||
No | 164 (75.1) | 94 (78.0) | 71 (71.7) | ||
Perceived overall health | 0.283 | 0.001 | |||
Excellent | 27 (12.3) | 15 (12.5) | 12 (12.1) | ||
Very good | 64 (29.2) | 47 (39.2) | 17 (17.2) | ||
Good | 88 (40.2) | 45 (37.5) | 43 (43.4) | ||
Fair/poor | 40 (18.3) | 13 (10.8) | 27 (27.3) | ||
Metabolic equivalent (min/wk) | 0.149 | 0.025 | |||
<500 | 26 (11.8) | 8 (6.5) | 17 (17.0) | ||
≥500 | 193 (88.2) | 112 (93.5) | 82 (83.0) | ||
Monthly frequency of alcohol use (d) | 0.015 | 0.976 | |||
0 | 89 (40.6) | 48 (40.0) | 41 (41.4) | ||
1−14 | 119 (54.3) | 66 (55.0) | 53 (53.5) | ||
15−30 | 11 (5.0) | 6 (5.0) | 5 (5.1) | ||
Daily fruit and vegetable consumption (serving) | 0.042 | 0.822 | |||
0 | 22 (10.0) | 13 (10.8) | 9 (9.1) | ||
1−2 | 148 (67.6) | 79 (65.8) | 69 (69.7) | ||
≥3 | 49 (22.4) | 28 (23.3) | 21 (21.2) | ||
Weekly frequency of eating fast foods (time) | 0.123 | 0.193 | |||
0 | 44 (20.1) | 20 (16.7) | 24 (24.2) | ||
1−2 | 67 (30.6) | 42 (35.0) | 25 (25.3) | ||
≥3 | 108 (49.3) | 58 (48.3) | 50 (50.5) | ||
Weekly frequency of drinking a soft drink or soda containing sugar (time) | 0.094 | 0.379 | |||
0 | 59 (26.9) | 30 (25.0) | 29 (29.3) | ||
1−2 | 58 (26.5) | 29 (24.2) | 29 (29.3) | ||
≥3 | 102 (46.6) | 61 (50.8) | 41 (41.4) | ||
Daily sitting hours | 5.8±3.7 | 5.7±3.4 | 5.9±4.0 | 0.640 | |
Daily screen time | 8.4±7.2 | 9.1±7.4 | 7.5±6.9 | 0.141 |
Data are presented as n (%) or mean±SD. The percentages may not add to 100 because of a lack of responses or rounding errors.
a)Cramer’s V effect sizes were judged as negligible associations if <0.1, weak associations if between 0.1 and <0.2, moderate associations if between 0.2 and <0.4, and strong if ≥0.4.
Variable | Total | Male | Female | Effect sizea) | p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normal weight (n=81) | 0.399 | 0.001 | |||
Underestimation | 15 (18.5) | 13 (33.3) | 2 (4.8) | ||
Accurate estimation | 63 (77.8) | 26 (66.7) | 37 (88.1) | ||
Overestimation | 3 (3.7) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (7.1) | ||
Overweight (n=74) | 0.290 | 0.013 | |||
Underestimation | 56 (75.7) | 40 (85.1) | 16 (59.3) | ||
Accurate estimation | 18 (24.3) | 7 (14.9) | 11 (40.7) | ||
Obese (n=59) | 0.352 | 0.007 | |||
Underestimation | 11 (18.6) | 10 (31.3) | 1 (3.7) | ||
Accurate estimation | 48 (81.4) | 22 (68.8) | 26 (96.3) |
Data are presented as n (%). Underweight participants were not included in this table due to the small sample size (n=5).
a)Cramer’s V effect sizes were judged as negligible associations if <0.1, weak associations if between 0.1 and <0.2, moderate associations if between 0.2 and <0.4, and strong if ≥0.4.
Variable | OR (95% CI) |
---|---|
Age (y) | |
18−19 | 1.02 (0.59−1.78) |
≥20 | 1.00 |
Sex | |
Male | 4.46 (2.40−8.30)*** |
Female | 1.00 |
Campus setting | |
Very large city | 0.94 (0.52−1.67) |
Rural town | 1.00 |
Type of residence | |
On-campus | 1.43 (0.75−2.73) |
Off-campus | 1.00 |
Poverty threshold | |
Above | 1.00 |
Below | 1.04 (0.46−2.35) |
Perceived overall health | |
Excellent/very good | 1.00 |
Good | 0.72 (0.39−1.31) |
Fair/poor | 0.15 (0.06−0.43)*** |
Informed of being overweight by a doctor | |
Yes | 1.00 |
No | 2.81 (1.37−5.74)** |
Metabolic equivalent (min/wk) | |
<500 | 1.00 |
≥500 | 3.21 (1.05−9.85)* |
Daily sitting hours | 1.04 (0.96−1.12) |
Daily screen time | 1.05 (0.99−1.11) |
Monthly frequency of alcohol use (d) | |
0 | 1.00 |
1−14 | 0.91 (0.51−1.62) |
15−30 | 1.86 (0.52−6.57) |
Daily fruit and vegetable consumption (serving) | |
0 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 0.88 (0.35−2.27) |
≥3 | 0.45 (0.15−1.35) |
Weekly frequency of eating fast foods (time) | |
0 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 2.01 (0.88−4.61) |
≥3 | 1.75 (0.81−3.79) |
Weekly frequency of drinking a soft drink or soda containing sugar (time) | |
0 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 1.33 (0.61−2.90) |
≥3 | 1.77 (0.89−3.51) |
Variable | ≥5% weight gain (%) | OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
Total | 58.3 | |
Age (y) | ||
18−19 | 62.9 | 1.48 (0.73−3.00) |
≥20 | 53.2 | 1.00 |
Sex | ||
Male | 50.0 | 0.43 (0.20−0.94)* |
Female | 70.4 | 1.00 |
Campus setting | ||
Very large city | 58.7 | 1.35 (0.64−2.87) |
Rural town | 58.1 | 1.00 |
Type of residence | ||
On-campus | 62.5 | 2.46 (1.12−5.38)* |
Off-campus | 47.2 | 1.00 |
Poverty threshold | ||
Above | 54.8 | 1.00 |
Below | 78.9 | 5.99 (1.32−27.29)* |
Perceived overall health | ||
Excellent/very good | 41.9 | 1.00 |
Good | 58.3 | 1.81 (0.82−4.01) |
Fair/poor | 82.8 | 5.03 (1.62−15.63)** |
Informed of being overweight by a doctor | ||
Yes | 51.0 | 1.00 |
No | 63.7 | 2.07 (1.01−4.30)* |
Metabolic equivalent (min/wk) | ||
<500 | 81.8 | 1.00 |
≥500 | 55.9 | 0.35 (0.07−1.69) |
Daily sitting hours | - | 1.02 (0.92−1.12) |
Daily screen time | - | 1.02 (1.01−1.05)* |
Monthly frequency of alcohol use (d) | ||
0 | 45.7 | 1.00 |
1−14 | 64.1 | 0.73 (0.30−1.81) |
15−30 | 75.0 | 1.39 (0.45−4.29) |
Daily fruit and vegetable consumption (serving) | ||
0 | 85.7 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 57.3 | 0.16 (0.02−1.35) |
≥3 | 48.3 | 0.09 (0.01−0.83)* |
Weekly frequency of eating fast foods (time) | ||
0 | 44.0 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 59.5 | 2.55 (0.98, 7.04) |
≥3 | 63.1 | 2.67 (1.04, 6.86)* |
Weekly frequency of drinking a soft drink or soda containing sugar (time) | ||
0 | 46.9 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 58.3 | 1.88 (0.65−5.38) |
≥3 | 64.1 | 3.21 (1.21−8.55)* |
Body weight perception | ||
Underestimation | 62.7 | 0.98 (0.49−1.99) |
Accurate estimation | 63.1 | 1.00 |
Variable | Total (n=219) | Male (n=120) | Female (n=99) | Effect size |
p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Annual household income | 0.187 | 0.054 | |||
Don’t know | 44 (20.1) | 31 (25.8) | 13 (13.1) | ||
<$30,000 | 32 (14.6) | 13 (10.8) | 19 (19.2) | ||
≥$30,000 & <$60,000 | 60 (27.4) | 34 (28.3) | 26 (26.3) | ||
≥$60,000 | 83 (37.9) | 42 (35.0) | 41 (41.4) | ||
Poverty threshold (n=205) | 0.082 | 0.239 | |||
Above | 177 (86.3) | 97 (89.0) | 80 (83.3) | ||
Below | 28 (13.7) | 12 (11.0) | 16 (16.7) | ||
Type of residence | 0.047 | 0.490 | |||
On-campus | 162 (74.0) | 91 (75.8) | 71 (71.7) | ||
Off-campus | 57 (26.0) | 29 (24.2) | 28 (28.3) | ||
Campus setting | 0.112 | 0.099 | |||
Very large city | 77 (35.2) | 48 (40.0) | 29 (29.3) | ||
Rural town | 142 (64.8) | 72 (60.0) | 70 (70.7) | ||
Weight status | 0.138 | 0.239 | |||
Underweight | 5 (2.3) | 2 (1.7) | 3 (3.0) | ||
Normal | 81 (37.0) | 39 (32.5) | 42 (42.4) | ||
Overweight | 74 (33.8) | 47 (39.2) | 27 (27.3) | ||
Obese | 59 (26.9) | 32 (26.7) | 27 (27.3) | ||
Informed of being overweight by a doctor | 0.072 | 0.345 | |||
Yes | 55 (24.9) | 26 (22.0) | 28 (28.3) | ||
No | 164 (75.1) | 94 (78.0) | 71 (71.7) | ||
Perceived overall health | 0.283 | 0.001 | |||
Excellent | 27 (12.3) | 15 (12.5) | 12 (12.1) | ||
Very good | 64 (29.2) | 47 (39.2) | 17 (17.2) | ||
Good | 88 (40.2) | 45 (37.5) | 43 (43.4) | ||
Fair/poor | 40 (18.3) | 13 (10.8) | 27 (27.3) | ||
Metabolic equivalent (min/wk) | 0.149 | 0.025 | |||
<500 | 26 (11.8) | 8 (6.5) | 17 (17.0) | ||
≥500 | 193 (88.2) | 112 (93.5) | 82 (83.0) | ||
Monthly frequency of alcohol use (d) | 0.015 | 0.976 | |||
0 | 89 (40.6) | 48 (40.0) | 41 (41.4) | ||
1−14 | 119 (54.3) | 66 (55.0) | 53 (53.5) | ||
15−30 | 11 (5.0) | 6 (5.0) | 5 (5.1) | ||
Daily fruit and vegetable consumption (serving) | 0.042 | 0.822 | |||
0 | 22 (10.0) | 13 (10.8) | 9 (9.1) | ||
1−2 | 148 (67.6) | 79 (65.8) | 69 (69.7) | ||
≥3 | 49 (22.4) | 28 (23.3) | 21 (21.2) | ||
Weekly frequency of eating fast foods (time) | 0.123 | 0.193 | |||
0 | 44 (20.1) | 20 (16.7) | 24 (24.2) | ||
1−2 | 67 (30.6) | 42 (35.0) | 25 (25.3) | ||
≥3 | 108 (49.3) | 58 (48.3) | 50 (50.5) | ||
Weekly frequency of drinking a soft drink or soda containing sugar (time) | 0.094 | 0.379 | |||
0 | 59 (26.9) | 30 (25.0) | 29 (29.3) | ||
1−2 | 58 (26.5) | 29 (24.2) | 29 (29.3) | ||
≥3 | 102 (46.6) | 61 (50.8) | 41 (41.4) | ||
Daily sitting hours | 5.8±3.7 | 5.7±3.4 | 5.9±4.0 | 0.640 | |
Daily screen time | 8.4±7.2 | 9.1±7.4 | 7.5±6.9 | 0.141 |
Variable | Total | Male | Female | Effect size |
p |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Normal weight (n=81) | 0.399 | 0.001 | |||
Underestimation | 15 (18.5) | 13 (33.3) | 2 (4.8) | ||
Accurate estimation | 63 (77.8) | 26 (66.7) | 37 (88.1) | ||
Overestimation | 3 (3.7) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (7.1) | ||
Overweight (n=74) | 0.290 | 0.013 | |||
Underestimation | 56 (75.7) | 40 (85.1) | 16 (59.3) | ||
Accurate estimation | 18 (24.3) | 7 (14.9) | 11 (40.7) | ||
Obese (n=59) | 0.352 | 0.007 | |||
Underestimation | 11 (18.6) | 10 (31.3) | 1 (3.7) | ||
Accurate estimation | 48 (81.4) | 22 (68.8) | 26 (96.3) |
Variable | OR (95% CI) |
---|---|
Age (y) | |
18−19 | 1.02 (0.59−1.78) |
≥20 | 1.00 |
Sex | |
Male | 4.46 (2.40−8.30) |
Female | 1.00 |
Campus setting | |
Very large city | 0.94 (0.52−1.67) |
Rural town | 1.00 |
Type of residence | |
On-campus | 1.43 (0.75−2.73) |
Off-campus | 1.00 |
Poverty threshold | |
Above | 1.00 |
Below | 1.04 (0.46−2.35) |
Perceived overall health | |
Excellent/very good | 1.00 |
Good | 0.72 (0.39−1.31) |
Fair/poor | 0.15 (0.06−0.43) |
Informed of being overweight by a doctor | |
Yes | 1.00 |
No | 2.81 (1.37−5.74) |
Metabolic equivalent (min/wk) | |
<500 | 1.00 |
≥500 | 3.21 (1.05−9.85) |
Daily sitting hours | 1.04 (0.96−1.12) |
Daily screen time | 1.05 (0.99−1.11) |
Monthly frequency of alcohol use (d) | |
0 | 1.00 |
1−14 | 0.91 (0.51−1.62) |
15−30 | 1.86 (0.52−6.57) |
Daily fruit and vegetable consumption (serving) | |
0 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 0.88 (0.35−2.27) |
≥3 | 0.45 (0.15−1.35) |
Weekly frequency of eating fast foods (time) | |
0 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 2.01 (0.88−4.61) |
≥3 | 1.75 (0.81−3.79) |
Weekly frequency of drinking a soft drink or soda containing sugar (time) | |
0 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 1.33 (0.61−2.90) |
≥3 | 1.77 (0.89−3.51) |
Variable | ≥5% weight gain (%) | OR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|
Total | 58.3 | |
Age (y) | ||
18−19 | 62.9 | 1.48 (0.73−3.00) |
≥20 | 53.2 | 1.00 |
Sex | ||
Male | 50.0 | 0.43 (0.20−0.94) |
Female | 70.4 | 1.00 |
Campus setting | ||
Very large city | 58.7 | 1.35 (0.64−2.87) |
Rural town | 58.1 | 1.00 |
Type of residence | ||
On-campus | 62.5 | 2.46 (1.12−5.38) |
Off-campus | 47.2 | 1.00 |
Poverty threshold | ||
Above | 54.8 | 1.00 |
Below | 78.9 | 5.99 (1.32−27.29) |
Perceived overall health | ||
Excellent/very good | 41.9 | 1.00 |
Good | 58.3 | 1.81 (0.82−4.01) |
Fair/poor | 82.8 | 5.03 (1.62−15.63) |
Informed of being overweight by a doctor | ||
Yes | 51.0 | 1.00 |
No | 63.7 | 2.07 (1.01−4.30) |
Metabolic equivalent (min/wk) | ||
<500 | 81.8 | 1.00 |
≥500 | 55.9 | 0.35 (0.07−1.69) |
Daily sitting hours | - | 1.02 (0.92−1.12) |
Daily screen time | - | 1.02 (1.01−1.05) |
Monthly frequency of alcohol use (d) | ||
0 | 45.7 | 1.00 |
1−14 | 64.1 | 0.73 (0.30−1.81) |
15−30 | 75.0 | 1.39 (0.45−4.29) |
Daily fruit and vegetable consumption (serving) | ||
0 | 85.7 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 57.3 | 0.16 (0.02−1.35) |
≥3 | 48.3 | 0.09 (0.01−0.83) |
Weekly frequency of eating fast foods (time) | ||
0 | 44.0 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 59.5 | 2.55 (0.98, 7.04) |
≥3 | 63.1 | 2.67 (1.04, 6.86) |
Weekly frequency of drinking a soft drink or soda containing sugar (time) | ||
0 | 46.9 | 1.00 |
1−2 | 58.3 | 1.88 (0.65−5.38) |
≥3 | 64.1 | 3.21 (1.21−8.55) |
Body weight perception | ||
Underestimation | 62.7 | 0.98 (0.49−1.99) |
Accurate estimation | 63.1 | 1.00 |
Data are presented as Cramer’s V effect sizes were judged as negligible associations if <0.1, weak associations if between 0.1 and <0.2, moderate associations if between 0.2 and <0.4, and strong if ≥0.4.
Data are presented as Cramer’s V effect sizes were judged as negligible associations if <0.1, weak associations if between 0.1 and <0.2, moderate associations if between 0.2 and <0.4, and strong if ≥0.4.
We excluded underweight participants ( OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval.
OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval. Defined as a 5% or greater weight increase relative to weight 1 year ago.