Figure 1Flow diagram of the inclusion criteria of studies eligible for meta-analysis.
Figure 2Plots of the proportions of deaths (A), discharge rates (B), and those remaining in hospital due to COVID-19 (C) in the general population and in medical staff.
Table 1Characteristics of the included studies on COVID-19 confirmed cases, 2020.
Study [ref.] |
Year |
Country |
No. patients |
Median age (y) |
Sex (Female; %) |
Discharge rate (%) |
Fatality rate (%) |
Quality score |
Available papers on patients with COVID-19 |
Wu et al [21] |
2020 |
China |
80 |
46.1 |
51.25 |
23.75 |
0 |
13 |
Guan et al [25] |
2020 |
China |
1,099 |
47 |
41.9 |
5 |
1.4 |
10 |
Tang et al [20] |
2020 |
China |
183 |
54.1 |
46.5 |
42.6 |
11.5 |
13 |
Zhang et al [22] |
2020 |
China |
140 |
57 |
49.3 |
N/R |
N/R |
10 |
Wang et al [8] |
2020 |
China |
138 |
56 |
45.7 |
34.1 |
4.3 |
13 |
Chen et al [17] |
2020 |
China |
99 |
55 |
32 |
31 |
11 |
12 |
Hung et al [6] |
2020 |
China |
41 |
49 |
27 |
68 |
15 |
13 |
Xu et al [27] |
2020 |
China |
62 |
35 |
44 |
2 |
0 |
13 |
Wu et al [41] |
2020 |
China |
201 |
51 |
36.3 |
N/R |
N/R |
12 |
Zhu et al [28] |
2020 |
China |
116 |
40 |
53 |
N/R |
N/R |
10 |
Zhao et al [23] |
2020 |
China |
34 |
48 |
42.11 |
N/R |
N/R |
13 |
Hu et al [9] |
2020 |
China |
24 |
32.5 |
0 |
N/R |
0 |
13 |
Chen et al [18] |
2020 |
China |
274 |
68 |
37.5 |
39 |
63 |
13 |
Liu et al [11] |
2020 |
China |
137 |
57 |
55.5 |
32.1 |
11.7 |
13 |
Pan et al [46] |
2020 |
China |
21 |
40 |
74 |
100 |
0 |
13 |
Feng et al [47] |
2020 |
China |
15 |
7 |
66.66 |
33.33 |
0 |
10 |
Yang et al [48] |
2020 |
China |
52 |
59.7 |
33 |
38.4 |
61.5 |
13 |
Iranian COVID-19 research group report [29] |
2020 |
Iran |
8,840 |
51.2 |
43.9 |
N/R |
N/R |
11 |
Available papers on medical staff with COVID-19 |
Chu et al [24] |
2020 |
China |
54 |
47 |
33.3 |
N/R |
N/R |
13 |
Liu et al [26] |
2020 |
China |
64 |
35 |
64 |
53 |
0 |
13 |
Liu et al [19] |
2020 |
China |
41 |
39.1 |
58.5 |
87.9 |
0 |
13 |
Hu et al [44] |
2020 |
China |
38 |
36 |
60.5 |
100 |
0 |
12 |
McMichael et al [45] |
2020 |
China |
167 |
72 |
67 |
N/R |
21 |
12 |
Liu et al [49] |
2020 |
USA |
30 |
35 |
33.33 |
80 |
0 |
13 |
Table 2The result of analysis of laboratory findings in COVID-19 patients in the general public and in medical staff.
Laboratory variables |
Population |
N
|
ES (95% CI) |
p (between subgroups) |
I2
|
Chi-square |
Egger test |
WBC |
General public |
12 |
5.43 (4.80 – 6.04) |
< 0.001 |
98.5 |
749 (p < 0.001) |
5.92 (p < 0.001) |
Medical staff |
2 |
4.73 (4.71 – 4.74) |
0 |
0.44 (p = 0.51) |
0.68 (p = 0.86) |
|
Lymphocyte |
General public |
12 |
0.93 (0.84 – 1.02) |
< 0.001 |
96 |
293.5 (p < 0.001) |
2.33 (p = 0.38) |
Medical staff |
2 |
1.32 (1.17 – 1.46) |
74 |
3.85 (p = 0.05) |
2.06 (p = 0.51) |
|
Neutrophil |
General public |
9 |
4.17 (3.52 – 4.83) |
0.79 |
98 |
667 (p < 0.001) |
12.28 (p < 0.001) |
Medical staff |
2 |
4.53 (2.05 – 7.0) |
99 |
97.8 (p < 0.001) |
12.52 (p < 0.001) |
|
Hemoglobin |
General public |
8 |
12.76 (11.84 – 13.68) |
0.60 |
99 |
261 (p < 0.001) |
0.02 (p = 0.86) |
Medical staff |
2 |
13.0 (12.98 – 13.02) |
0 |
< 0.001 (p = 0.98) |
2.54 (p = 0.48) |
|
Platelet |
General public |
9 |
175.04 (163.03 – 187.06) |
0.04 |
98 |
329.2 (p < 0.001) |
0.93 (p = 0.67) |
Medical staff |
2 |
183.69 (183.32– 184.07) |
0 |
0.81 (p =0.37) |
3.07 (p = 0.42) |
|
PT |
General public |
7 |
12.24 (11.17– 13.30) |
0.02 |
99 |
5,609 (p < 0.001) |
1.44 (p = 0.2) |
Medical staff |
1 |
10.9 (10.74 – 11.06) |
---- |
----- |
---- |
|
PTT |
General public |
7 |
30.53 (25.75 – 35.31) |
0.02 |
99 |
5,066 (p < 0.001) |
1.21 (p = 0.27) |
Medical staff |
1 |
25.7 (24.82 – 26.58) |
---- |
----- |
---- |
|
D-dimer |
General public |
9 |
0.67 (0.40 - 0.94) |
---- |
99 |
678 (p < 0.001) |
6.1 (p < 0.001) |
Medical staff |
0 |
---- |
----- |
------ |
------ |
|
ESR |
General public |
6 |
0.68 (−2.38 – 3.73) |
0.76 |
0 |
0.03 (p = 0.99) |
2.18 (p = 0.09) |
Medical staff |
1 |
0.21 (−0.05 – 0.47) |
----- |
------ |
------ |
|
CRP |
General public |
6 |
14.92 (4.68 – 25.16) |
----- |
96 |
246 (p < 0.001) |
1.3 (p = 0.36) |
Medical staff |
0 |
----- |
----- |
------ |
------ |
|
PCT |
General public |
6 |
0.37 (0.16 – 0.55) |
< 0.001 |
99 |
635.8 (p < 0.001) |
1.95 (p = 0.11) |
Medical staff |
1 |
0.05 (0.04 – 0.06) |
----- |
------ |
------ |
|
LDH |
General public |
9 |
283.7 (244.5 – 322.95) |
< 0.001 |
99 |
1,088 (p < 0.001) |
1.36 (p = 0.36) |
Medical staff |
2 |
182.8 (167.6– 198.1) |
80 |
5.01 (p = 0.03) |
2.28 (p = 0.09) |
|
Creatinine |
General public |
5 |
72.75(70.5 – 75.0) |
0.03 |
87 |
37 (p < 0.001) |
0.48 (p = 0.91) |
Medical staff |
2 |
65.3 (58.9 – 71.8) |
86 |
7.5 (p = 0.006) |
1.82 (p = 0.26) |
|
CK-MB |
General public |
3 |
16.8 (13.6 – 20.02) |
----- |
|
349 (p < 0.001) |
1.39 (p = 0.39) |
Medical staff |
0 |
----- |
----- |
------ |
------ |
|
CK |
General public |
8 |
103.3 (89.9 – 116.7) |
----- |
98 |
353 (p < 0.001) |
1.87 (p = 0.11) |
Medical staff |
0 |
----- |
----- |
------ |
------ |
|
AST |
General public |
9 |
22.39 (19.64 – 25.13) |
< 0.001 |
97 |
295 (p < 0.001) |
1.79 (p = 0.72) |
Medical staff |
2 |
32.24 (29.73 – 34.75) |
57 |
2.34 (p =0.13) |
1.0 (p = 0.37) |
|
ALT |
General public |
9 |
29.56 (26.12 – 33.01) |
0.02 |
97 |
349 (p < 0.001) |
1.69 (p = 0.31) |
Medical staff |
2 |
20.24 (12.96 – 27.52) |
86 |
7.3 (p = 0. 01) |
1.0 (p = 0.37) |
|
Alb |
General public |
5 |
34.05 (32.07 – 36.04) |
< 0.001 |
99 |
599.9 (p < 0.001) |
0.95 (p = 0.39) |
Medical staff |
1 |
38.4 (36.9 – 39.9) |
----- |
------ |
------ |
|
BUN |
General public |
4 |
5.81 (4.94 – 6.69) |
----- |
98 |
216 (p < 0.001) |
1.69 (p = 0. 23) |
Medical staff |
0 |
----- |
----- |
------ |
------ |
|
Bilirubin |
General public |
6 |
10.96 (9.47 – 12.44) |
0.29 |
99 |
758 (p < 0.001) |
1.53 (p = 0.52) |
Medical staff |
2 |
9.89 (8.57 – 11.21) |
72 |
3.63 (p = 0.06) |
0.36 (p = 0. 67) |
|
Glucose |
General public |
2 |
6.75 (5.87 – 7.63) |
------ |
98 |
76.27 (p < 0.001) |
1.0 (p = 0.37) |
Medical staff |
0 |
----- |
----- |
----- |
------ |
Table 3The result of symptom analysis in COVID-19 patients in the general public and in medical staff.
Symptoms |
Population |
N
|
ES (95% CI) |
p (between subgroups) |
I2
|
Chi-square |
Egger test |
Fever |
General public |
16 |
77 (63% – 89%) |
0.74 |
98 |
751.23 (p < 0.001) |
3.52 (p = 0.11) |
Medical staff |
4 |
74 (65% – 87%) |
48 |
5.82 (p = 0.12) |
2.52 (p = 0.07) |
|
Cough |
General public |
16 |
60 (53% – 68%) |
0.04*
|
90 |
161 (p < 0.001) |
1.11 (p = 0.12) |
Medical staff |
4 |
56 (49% – 63%) |
84 |
19.5 (p < 0.001) |
2.65 (p = 0.66) |
|
Fatigue |
General public |
12 |
38 (28% – 48%) |
0.47 |
94 |
188.4 (p < 0.001) |
0.09 (p = 0.93) |
Medical staff |
4 |
40 (32% – 50%) |
94 |
53.6 (p < 0.001) |
9.45 (p = 0.26) |
|
Shortness of breath |
General public |
1 |
19 (16% – 21%) |
< 0.001†
|
---- |
------ |
------ |
Medical staff |
1 |
47 (28% – 66%) |
---- |
------ |
------ |
|
Muscle ache |
General public |
2 |
16 (11% – 22%) |
0.04*
|
0 |
------ |
0.39 (p = 0.76) |
Medical staff |
1 |
0.6 (0.1% – 15%) |
---- |
------ |
------ |
|
Headache & mental disorder |
General public |
11 |
10 (0.7% – 14%) |
0.63 |
79 |
47.6 (p < 0.001) |
0.3 (p = 0.51) |
Medical staff |
4 |
11 (0.7% – 15%) |
91 |
36.2 (p < 0.001) |
6.33 (p = 0.28) |
|
Sore throat |
General public |
3 |
11 (0.6% – 17%) |
0.75 |
---- |
------ |
0.61 (p = 0.53) |
Medical staff |
2 |
11 (0.5% – 18%) |
---- |
------ |
------ |
|
Rhinorrhea |
General public |
2 |
0.5 (0.2% – 0.9%) |
0.9 |
---- |
------ |
------ |
Medical staff |
2 |
0.5 (0.1% – 10%) |
---- |
------ |
------ |
|
Chest pain |
General public |
3 |
0.3 (0.1% – 0.5%) |
0.9 |
0 |
2.63 (p = 0.45) |
2.41 (p = 0.09) |
Medical staff |
1 |
0.3 (0% –11%) |
---- |
------ |
------ |
|
Diarrhea |
General public |
11 |
0.6 (0.2% – 11%) |
0.56 |
93 |
139.7 (p < 0.001) |
0.13 (p = 0.87) |
Medical staff |
3 |
0.9 (0.2% – 18%) |
91 |
39.8 (p < 0.001) |
4.90 (p = 0.21) |
|
Nausea & vomiting |
General public |
7 |
0.7 (0.3% – 12%) |
0.51 |
89.4 |
56.5 (p < 0.001) |
0.31 (p = 0.67) |
Medical staff |
2 |
0.9 (0.3% – 16%) |
---- |
------ |
------ |
Table 4The result of comorbidity analysis in COVID-19 patients in the general population and in medical staff.
Comorbidities |
Population |
N
|
ES (95% CI) |
p (between subgroups) |
I2
|
Chi-square |
Egger test |
Hypertension |
General public |
11 |
17 (12% – 23%) |
0.62 |
89 |
95.2 (p < 0.001) |
5.47 (p = 0.05) |
Medical staff |
4 |
11 (0% – 38%) |
96 |
78.5 (p < 0.001) |
0.06 (p = 0.94) |
|
CVD |
General public |
11 |
0.8 (0.4% – 12%) |
0.89 |
89 |
97.3 (p < 0.001) |
4.88 (p = 0.004) |
Medical staff |
3 |
0.9 (0% – 46%) |
-- |
----- |
0.98 (p = 0.07) |
|
Diabetes |
General public |
11 |
10 (0.7% – 13%) |
0.49 |
76 |
42.75 (p < 0.001) |
2.78 (p = 0.07) |
Medical staff |
4 |
0.5 (0% – 20%) |
92 |
38.12 (p < 0.001) |
0.35 (p = 0.37) |
|
Malignancy |
General public |
11 |
0.5 (0.1% – 0.3%) |
0.27 |
55 |
22.14 (p = 0.01) |
0.81 (p = 0.24) |
Medical staff |
3 |
0.4 (0% – 12%) |
--- |
------ |
0.15 (p = 0.32) |
|
CBD |
General public |
10 |
0.2 (0.1% – 0.4%) |
------ |
62 |
23.5 (p = 0.01) |
1.54 (p = 0.6) |
Medical staff |
---- |
------ |
---- |
------ |
------ |
|
COPD |
General public |
12 |
0.1 (0.1% – 0.2%) |
0.99 |
17 |
13.2 (p = 0.28) |
4.11 (p = 0.01) |
Medical staff |
2 |
0.1 (0% – 0.5%) |
---- |
------ |
0.11 (p = 0.23) |
|
Kidney |
General public |
9 |
0.1 (0% – 0.2%) |
< 0.001 |
17 |
9.68 (p = 0.29) |
0.18 (p = 0.01) |
Medical staff |
2 |
18 (13% – 23%) |
---- |
------ |
4.79 (p = 0.01) |
|
Liver |
General public |
7 |
0.4 (0.2% – 0.6%) |
0.84 |
32 |
8.77 (p = 0.19) |
0.23 (p = 0.65) |
Medical staff |
2 |
0.4 (0.1% – 0.7%) |
---- |
------ |
0.16 (p = 0.56) |
|
Gastrointestinal |
General public |
4 |
0.4 (0.1% – 10%) |
0.64 |
83 |
17.34 (p < 0.001) |
1.08 (p = 0.36) |
Medical staff |
2 |
0.3 (0% – 0.7%) |
---- |
------ |
1.31 (p = 0.27) |
|
Endocrine |
General public |
4 |
0.5 (0.1% –0.11%) |
0.33 |
85 |
18.89 (p < 0.001) |
0.80 (p = 0.48) |
Medical staff |
1 |
0.2 (0% – 0.8%) |
---- |
------ |
------ |
|
HIV |
General public |
3 |
0 (0% – 0.1%) |
----- |
0 |
------ |
1.0 (p = 0.32) |
Medical staff |
---- |
------ |
---- |
------ |
------ |