Figure 1
Prevalence of children who are underweight, have stunted growth or are wasting according to the smoking status of the father.
WAZ = weight-for-age; HAZ = height-for-age; WHZ = weight-for-height.
Table 1Characteristics of study participants in each group.
|
Children with fathers that do not smoke |
Children with fathers that smoke |
p*
|
Mothers |
Age (y) |
29 ± 5.8 (n = 138) |
30 ± 6.1 (n = 340) |
0.30 |
Schooling (y) |
6.9 ± 3.1 (n = 137) |
6.4 ± 2.7 (n = 338) |
0.09 |
Age of marriage (y) |
20.1 ± 3.2 (n = 137) |
18.9 ± 3.0 (n = 339) |
< 0.001 |
|
Fathers |
Age (y) |
34 ± 6.1 (n = 138) |
35 ± 6.9 (n = 337) |
0.58 |
Schooling (y) |
7.5 ± 3.3 (n = 137) |
6.3 ± 2.7 (n = 339) |
< 0.001 |
Occupation (%) |
n = 138 |
n = 340 |
0.001 |
Fisherman |
5 (3.6) |
25 (7.4) |
|
Farming |
26 (19.0) |
116 (34.2) |
|
Waged labor |
66 (48.2) |
126 (37.2) |
|
Salaried |
15 (10.9) |
38 (11.2) |
|
Entrepreneur |
25 (18.2) |
34 (10.0) |
|
Proportion cigarette expenditure per month |
- |
16.6 ± 13.1 (n = 339) |
- |
|
Households |
Family size |
5.0 ± 2.0 (n = 137) |
5.1 ± 1.9 (n = 339) |
0.66 |
Family type |
n = 138 |
n = 340 |
0.07 |
Nuclear |
76 (55.5) |
218 (64.3) |
|
Extended |
61 (44.5) |
121 (35.7) |
|
Total income per month (US$) |
63.4 ± 20.7 (n = 137) |
66.5 ± 26.5 (n = 338) |
0.17 |
Proportion food expenditure per month |
51.1 ± 20.7 (n = 137) |
49.6 ± 23.5 (n = 339) |
0.53 |
|
Study area |
n = 138 |
n = 340 |
|
Gorontalo (coastal) |
64 (46.4) |
184 (54.1) |
|
Jember (inland) |
74 (53.6) |
156 (45.9) |
0.13 |
Table 2Characteristics of children aged 2–6 years according to fathers’ smoking status.
Characteristics |
Children with fathers that do not smoke (n = 138) |
Children with fathers that smoke (n = 340) |
p*
|
Boy |
73 (52.9) |
178 (52.4) |
0.91 |
Age (y) |
3.7 ± 1.2 |
4.0 ± 1.1 |
0.03 |
Weight (kg) |
13.1 ± 2.7 |
13.1 ± 2.4 |
0.87 |
Height (cm) |
92.6 ± 9.1 (n = 137) |
92.9 ± 8.8 (n = 339) |
0.75 |
Table 3Nutritional status of children aged 2–6 years according to fathers’ smoking status.
|
Children with fathers that do not smoke (n = 138) |
Children with fathers that smoke (n = 340) |
|
|
|
|
Anthropometric measures |
Mean ± SD |
Adjusted mean* (95% CI) |
Mean ± SD |
Adjusted mean (95% CI) |
p†
|
Weight-for-age Z-score |
−1.46 ± 1.05 |
−1.49 (−1.65, −1.33) |
−1.66 ± 0.92 |
−1.64 (−1.74, −1.54) |
0.13 |
|
Height-for-age Z-score |
−1.96 ± 1.14 (n = 137) |
−1.99 (−2.17, −1.81) |
−2.27 ± 1.05 (n = 339) |
−2.25 (−2.36, −2.13) |
0.02 |
|
Weight-for-height Z-score |
−0.46 ± 0.95 (n = 137) |
−0.46 (−0.61, −0.30) |
−0.45 ± 0.93 (n = 339) |
−0.45 (−0.55, −0.35) |
0.93 |