Objectives
The objective of this study was to identify the potential and definite sources of transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19).
Methods
Due to time constraints and the acute nature of the pandemic, we searched only PubMed/Medline from inception until January 28, 2021. We analyzed the level of evidence and risk of bias in each category and made suggestions accordingly.
Results
The virus was traced from its potential origin via possible ways of transmission to the last host. Symptomatic human-to-human transmission remains the driver of the epidemic, but asymptomatic transmission can potentially contribute in a substantial manner. Feces and fomites have both been found to contain viable virus; even though transmission through these routes has not been documented, their contribution cannot be ruled out. Finally, transmission from pregnant women to their children has been found to be low (up to 3%).
Conclusion
Even though robust outcomes cannot be easily assessed, medical personnel must maintain awareness of the main routes of transmission (via droplets and aerosols from even asymptomatic patients). This is the first attempt to systematically review the existing knowledge to produce a paper with a potentially significant clinical impact.
Citations
Citations to this article as recorded by
Health Literacy and Acceptance of COVID-19 Preventive Measures and Vaccination in the European Union: A Scoping Review Evridiki Vasileia, George Koulierakis, Theodoros Fouskas, Angeliki Liarigkovinou HLRP: Health Literacy Research and Practice.2025;[Epub] CrossRef
The Global Health Security Index and Its Role in Shaping National COVID‑19 Response Capacities: A Scoping Review Danik Iga Prasiska, Kennedy Mensah Osei, Durga Datta Chapagain, Vasuki Rajaguru, Tae Hyun Kim, Sun Joo Kang, Sang Gyu Lee, Suk-Yong Jang, Whiejong Han Annals of Global Health.2025; 91(1): 15. CrossRef
Risk factors and management of steinstrasse after shockwave lithotripsy Lazaros TZELVES, Robert GERAGHTY, Patrick JULIEBØ-JONES, Carlotta NEDBAL, Konstantinos KAPRINIOTIS, Bhaskar K. SOMANI, Andreas SKOLARIKOS Hellenic Urology.2024;[Epub] CrossRef
Should We Interfere with the Interleukin-6 Receptor During COVID-19: What Do We Know So Far? Alexia Plocque, Christie Mitri, Charlène Lefèvre, Olivier Tabary, Lhousseine Touqui, Francois Philippart Drugs.2023; 83(1): 1. CrossRef
Evaluation the efficacy and safety of N‐acetylcysteine inhalation spray in controlling the symptoms of patients with COVID‐19: An open‐label randomized controlled clinical trial Yunes Panahi, Mostafa Ghanei, Morteza Rahimi, Abbas Samim, Amir Vahedian‐Azimi, Stephen L. Atkin, Amirhossein Sahebkar Journal of Medical Virology.2023;[Epub] CrossRef
A narrative review of alternative transmission routes of COVID 19: what we know so far Alyexandra Arienzo, Valentina Gallo, Federica Tomassetti, Nicoletta Pitaro, Michele Pitaro, Giovanni Antonini Pathogens and Global Health.2023; 117(8): 681. CrossRef
Clinical Application of In Vitro Tests for COVID-19 Vaccine Delayed Hypersensitivity Diagnostics Jan Romantowski, Aleksandra Górska, Maciej Zieliński, Piotr Trzonkowski, Karolina Rucka, Marek Niedoszytko International Journal of Molecular Sciences.2023; 24(17): 13296. CrossRef
Bayesian network-based spatial predictive modelling reveals COVID-19 transmission dynamics in Eswatini Wisdom M. D. Dlamini, Sabelo P. Simelane, Nhlanhla M. Nhlabatsi Spatial Information Research.2022; 30(1): 183. CrossRef
Fetal inflammatory response syndrome and postnatal multi-system inflammatory syndrome in COVID-19-positive neonates Meenakshi S. KUSHWAH, Arunkrishnan BALARAVI, Lakshmi VENUGOPALAN, Sreekanth RAMASHENOY, Anita CHRISBINA, Monisha PRABHAKARN, Sumaiya ALAUDDIN, Munmun SAHNEY, Manoj K. DEENADAYALAN, Prakash PETCHIMUTHU Minerva Respiratory Medicine.2022;[Epub] CrossRef
<sec>
<title>Objectives</title>
<p>Lung function impairment due to exposure to indoor air pollution of particulate matter size 2.5 micrometers (PM<sub>2.5</sub>) is not well documented in Jakarta.</p></sec>
<sec>
<title>Methods</title>
<p>To assess whether there is an association between indoor PM<sub>2.5</sub> concentration and lung function impairment among the adult population, a cross-sectional design was implemented. There were 109 adults selected aged between 20 years and 65 years from the Pulo Gadung industrial area, East Jakarta. Association and logistic regression analysis were implemented for statistical analysis of the data.</p></sec>
<sec>
<title>Results</title>
<p>The average exposure to indoor PM<sub>2.5</sub> was 308 μg/m<sup>3</sup>. There were 38.5% of participants that had lung function impairment. PM<sub>2.5</sub> concentration was found to be associated with lung function impairment among the adult population living in Pulo Gadung industrial area after controlling for gender, duration of exposure, ventilation, smoking status, and humidity.</p></sec>
<sec>
<title>Conclusion</title>
<p>The results of this study suggest that PM<sub>2.5</sub> concentrations in the Pulo Gadung industrial area may be the main contributor to the impairment of lung function for adults living in the surrounding residential area.</p></sec>
Citations
Citations to this article as recorded by
The association between formaldehyde, PM2.5, physical environmental and total IgE serum with asthmatic symptoms in 13–14 years olds Rusyda Sheffani Abbad, Hasnur Zalsabila Arna, Corie Indria Prasasti, Soejajadi Keman, Khuliyah Candraning Diyanah, Juliana Jalaludin Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health.2025; 18(6): 1667. CrossRef
Auto repair workers exposed to PM2.5 particulate matter in Barranquilla, Colombia: Telomere length and hematological parameters Jaime Luna-Carrascal, Jesús Olivero-Verbel, Antonio J. Acosta-Hoyos, Milton Quintana-Sosa Mutation Research/Genetic Toxicology and Environme.2023; 887: 503597. CrossRef
The use of indoor plant as an alternative strategy to improve indoor air quality in Indonesia Agus Dwi Susanto, Wira Winardi, Moulid Hidayat, Aditya Wirawan Reviews on Environmental Health.2021; 36(1): 95. CrossRef
Association of VOCs, PM2.5 and household environmental exposure with children’s respiratory allergies Corie I. Prasasti, Budi Haryanto, Mohd Talib Latif Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health.2021; 14(8): 1279. CrossRef
High Levels of Fine Particulate Matter (PM2.5) Concentrations from Burning Solid Fuels in Rural Households of Butajira, Ethiopia Mulugeta Tamire, Abera Kumie, Adamu Addissie, Mulugeta Ayalew, Johan Boman, Susann Skovbjerg, Rune Andersson, Mona Lärstad International Journal of Environmental Research an.2021; 18(13): 6942. CrossRef
Analysis of Spatial Distribution of PM2.5 and Human Behavior on Air Pollution in Jakarta K I Solihah, D N Martono, B Haryanto IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Sci.2021; 940(1): 012018. CrossRef
Extracellular vesicles as actors in the air pollution related cardiopulmonary diseases Stéphanie Alkoussa, Sébastien Hulo, Dominique Courcot, Sylvain Billet, Perrine J. Martin Critical Reviews in Toxicology.2020; 50(5): 402. CrossRef
Effect of particulate matter 2.5 exposure to urinary malondialdehyde levels of public transport drivers in Jakarta Damai Arum Pratiwi, Budi Haryanto Reviews on Environmental Health.2020; 35(3): 295. CrossRef
First
Prev
